Meat

MEAT. Contents: Morphological and chemical composition of meat . . . 41 Animals used for food . . . 44 Procurement of meat . . . 46 Distinction of meat of various animal species . . . 50 Post-slaughter changes in meat . . . 50 Meat products . . . 54 Veterinary and sanitary supervision . . . 55 Methods of investigating meat and meat products . . . 59 Meat of sick animals . . . 62 Meat of poultry and game . . . 65 Meat (in commodity science)—all parts of slaughtered animals consumed by food by man. This concept includes tissues covering the skeleton and internal organs (tongue, brain, trachea, heart, lungs, spleen, esophagus, kidneys, stomach, udder, etc.). In a narrower sense, meat is understood as the aggregate of soft tissues covering the bony skeleton. This includes: muscular, epithelial, connective, adipose, cartilaginous, nervous tissues, blood, and lymph. Morphological and chemical composition of meat. 1. Morphological composition of meat. The main part of meat is muscle tissue, consisting of striated muscle fibers. The fibers are joined into muscle bundles of various sizes; their cross-section allows one to determine what is known in the meat trade as the "granularity" of meat, and the longitudinal section what is called "fibrosity". Animal muscles have various colors: from white and pale pink to dark red.--The second morphological component of meat is fat. Fat is contained in meat in various quantities. Its content ranges from 2% to 30%. In young animals with good fattening, fat is located in the thickness of the muscles in layers of connective tissue. Such meat is called "marbled". In old animals with good fattening, fat is deposited mainly in the subcutaneous tissue, as well as inside cavities (chiefly in the abdominal cavity, near the kidneys, in the omentum, mesentery). Fat in pigs, deposited in the subcutaneous tissue, is called "lard". Fat is of various colors and densities. Its color depends first on age: in young animals it is white, in old ones it is more yellow; then on feed: in summer with green feed the fat is yellower, in winter with dry feed it is whiter. The change in the color of fat in some cases is caused by various diseases, e.g., jaundice, etc. The density of fat in various animals is different depending on its composition. The more olein and less stearin it contains, the softer and more fusible it is. The most refractory fat is in sheep, and the most fusible in horses.--Further, a component of meat is connective tissue—the main place among various types of connective tissue is occupied by bone tissue. The amount of bones in a carcass on average ranges from 7% to 12%. The predominance of one or another type of connective tissue in meat is of great importance when pricing meat, since different types of connective tissue are not digested equally in the human gastrointestinal tract: collagen is digested easily, while elastic is not subject to digestion. Cartilage tissue occupies an insignificant place in terms of its quantitative content in meat, which is why it does not affect the quality of meat. Nervous tissue is found in meat in the form of peripheral nerve fibers. In addition, there are blood and lymphatic vessels with remnants of formed elements in the meat. 2. Chemical composition of meat. The main components of meat proper and organs consumed for food are water, nitrogen-containing substances, fat, and a very small amount of nitrogen-free substances and inorganic salts. The fatter the meat, the less water it contains. In very fat meat, the content of other components decreases accordingly (Table 1). Thus, as the animal is fattened and the degree of its fatness increases, fat accumulates in meat and simultaneously water and proteins decrease. For consumption in Table 1. Amount of fat and protein (in grams per 1 kg) in meat of oxen of various degrees of fatness (according to Ignatyev). Oxen Water Fat Unfattened . . . Moderately fattened Fully fattened Protein meat is most advantageous from moderately fattened meat animals, in which the amount of fat and proteins is almost equal. This circumstance has long been taken into account by meat markets, quoting such meat higher. Meat without fat, i.e., muscle tissue, cleaned as much as possible from fat and tendon, contains approximately the same amount of water in various animals. According to König, in beef, veal, mutton, pork, horse meat, and rabbit meat, the amount of water ranges from 74.24% to 78.85%. According to Petersen, from 71.93% to 79.29%. On average, it can be considered equal to 76.20%. Meat of young animals is always richer in water than meat of old ones; meat of animals in an embryonic state can contain up to 98% water. Nitrogenous substances consist of proteins and nitrogenous extractive substances (see Meat extract). Table 2. Amount of nitrogen in meat of various animals (according to Petersen). Fluctua-Species of meat 1 tions in % average in % 3.45 3.18 3.15 3.25 3.63 3.20 Beef . . . . . . . . j 2.97-3.84 Veal . . . . . . . . > 3.07-3.31 Mutton . . . . . . . . 1 3.03-3.22 Pork . . . . . . . . j 3.12-3.36 Horse meat . . . . . . . . i 3.10-4.02 Rabbit meat . . . . . . . . 1 2.94-3.50 ! When converted to dehydrated meat, from 11.88% to 15.07% nitrogen is obtained. Of the nitrogen-free extractive substances in meat are glycogen, lactic acid, sugar, inositol, and traces of butyric, acetic, and formic acids. Glycogen is always found in living muscle and not always in dead muscle. In various muscles of the same animal, glycogen is contained in unequal amounts: in the back muscle of a horse it contains up to 10.8%, in the masticatory muscle - 0.047%, which largely depends on work and nutrition. Horse meat contains a lot of glycogen - from 0.586% to 0.940%. Lactic acid is contained in meat in an amount from 0.05% to 0.07%. Sugar contained in meat consists of maltose and partly grape sugar (Hammarsten); along with it there is a little dextrin - from 0.1 to 0.38 (Polenske). Inorganic salts of meat consist mainly of potassium, calcium, magnesium phosphates, as well as NaCl. Recent studies have shown that fresh meat contains vitamins (Moulton). Vitamin A is also contained in frozen meat. It is especially abundant in the liver and kidneys. Vitamin B is abundant in raw, boiled, and salted pork; it is also contained in smoked and boiled ham. Freezing pork Table 3. Chemical composition of ash of meat of slaughtered animals (in percent, according to König). Highest . . . 25.6 7.5 48.10 2.5 Medium . . . . 37.0 10.14 2.42 3.23 0.44 41.20 0.98 4.56 0.69 Lowest . . . . . 25.0 0.0 0.9 1.4 0.3 36.1 0.30 0.6 0.6 does not significantly affect the content of vitamin B (Wright). It is found in significant quantities in mutton (Hoagland). Liver, kidneys, and brain are also rich in vitamin B. In beef, this vitamin is found in negligible quantities. Raw meat contains vitamin C, but it is destroyed during the cooking process (see table 4). Meat is also a source of vi- Products Chemical composition in % of raw substance Beef lean . . . Beef medium . . . Beef fat . . . Salted beef . . Veal fat . . . Veal lean . . . Pork fat . . . Pork lean . . . Ham . . Mutton fat . . . Horse meat . . Chicken . . . Goose . . . Lung . . . Liver . . . Kidneys . . . Tongue . . . Brains . . . Rendered beef tallow . . . Rendered pork fat . . . Unrendered pork fat . 20.5 20.6 2.0 5.5 18.3 121.4 19.2 4.5 18.9 1 7.4 19.9 14.5 20.0 21.6 16.4 21.7 19.8 16.6 15.2 19.4 17.2 16.5 9.0 0.4 0.3 11.0 0.8 37.3 6.6 18.7 31.0 2.5 5.1 28.7 2.5 4.6 4.8 17.8 9.0 99.0 68.3 ¹ p and O o ^ Ksh 0.7 1.2 (76, 1.1 72, ! 1.0 58, | 16.7 159 _; 0.5 1.0 0.8 2.8 1.3 | 72.3 0.5 78.7 0.7 147.4 1.1. 172.5 3.8: 55.6 1.0 51.2 1.1 74.3 l, li 72.8 1.1 151.0 1.8, 79.9 1.6 171.6 4.8 800 ; 1080 | 2 140 | 940 1 140 3 285 1 165 : 2 135 : 2 775 i 815 : 1 075 ¹ 2 705 715 | 1090 930 1890 76.6 64.6 80.6; 1 170 1.3 | 8 230 I 0.7! 8 670 14.8J 6 470 tamin E, which is not affected by cooking. Table 5. Indigestible food nitrogen excreted with excrement (according to Khlopin). Products Percent ' Authors Fried meat . . . . .]

3,3 Wheat bread .... 21.0-30.5 Rye bread......| 32.0-46.6 Mixed food (meat and plant) . . I 7.0-14.0 Rubner Atwater Brilliant Rubner Woods Benedict Gorokhov Golunsky Khlopin Table Vitamins Digestibility of meat. In terms of the digestibility of nitrogen-containing substances, meat surpasses all plant proteins. The difference in digestibility can be seen from the data in Table 5.

In order to make meat most suitable for human nutrition, it is subjected to boiling or roasting. To preserve the best taste, it is recommended when boiling to lower the meat into boiling water; in this case, from the action of high temperature, the proteins of the surface layers of the meat quickly coagulate and prevent the release of nourishing juice from the meat, thanks to which it retains a good taste and maximum nutrition. Roasted meat, as can be seen from Table 6, contains more nutrients than raw and boiled. At high roasting temperatures, the proteins of the surface layers of the meat coagulate, part of the fat melts, and the meat becomes covered with a more or less impermeable shell that preserves the maximum nourishing juice. In addition, thanks to the decomposition of organic substances and the crust formed on the meat, aromatic and pleasant-tasting substances are formed; they stimulate the activity of digestive organs. slightly

- j boiled meat under normal preparation conditions loses about 40% ~

Animals used for food. Slaughter animals include: a) large horned cattle - ~~

~ bulls, oxen, and cows; - : - | b) small horned cattle - .

; sheep, rams, goats, he-goats; ~ | ~ ^! c) pigs - females and --------------

males (castrated and uncastrated); d) horses. Buffaloes, camels, deer, and rabbits are less commonly used as slaughter animals; and among wild animals - wild boars, bears, badgers, etc. The main sources of meat products are cattle, pigs, and sheep; in first place is cattle meat - 50%, pork - 35%, and mutton - 15% (Yakovlev).

The best meat is considered to be that obtained from domestic animals that are more or less early-maturing meat breeds, i.e., breeds that reach a certain growth and full development in the shortest possible time. In the USSR, the main breeds of meat cattle are considered to be the Kalmyk, Kyrgyz, gray Ukrainian cattle, or crosses of these breeds with foreign cattle, predominantly Simmental, Schwyz, Shorthorn, Dutch, and Wilstermarsch. The meat yielded by these cattle breeds, known as "Cherkasy" meat, is of the best quality. Kyrgyz, Kalmyk, and gray steppe cattle represent the meat reserve of the USSR livestock industry; our internal meat supply depends mainly on them. Up to 1914, more than 80% of all beef delivered to the Moscow market was provided by cattle of these breeds and their crosses. "Russian cattle," culls of dairy Great Russian cattle, provided predominantly sausage meat. Kalmyk cattle (southeast of the USSR), working cattle, have the advantage of fattening quickly when fed. During grazing and fattening, this breed accumulates fat mainly in the abdominal cavity, omentum, and around the kidneys. Little fat is deposited under the skin and between the muscles. It yields rather juicy and tasty meat despite relatively coarse muscle fibers. The disadvantage is the late-maturing nature of this breed. It constitutes 50% of all slaughter cattle driven to the Moscow and Leningrad markets. Gray steppe cattle (south of the USSR) are predominantly working cattle. They yield so-called "fatty" meat, surrounded inside and out by fat. The meat of this breed is less tender and juicy than that of Kalmyk cattle. Kyrgyz cattle (Turkestan and Kazakhstan) are meat and range cattle, distinguished by their ability to fatten quickly. With good fattening, they yield tender, juicy meat interlayered with fat, the so-called "marbled" meat. Crossbreeds differ little from Russian breeds in terms of fattening and slaughter (Yakovlev). As for small horned cattle, there are no special meat sheep breeds in the USSR. The most widespread are fat-rumped sheep. Good meat is provided by the Vlach (more correctly Wallachian) sheep and its crosses (southeast of the USSR) and Tsigai (Crimea). They fatten well. Adayev and Edilbay sheep (Caucasian breeds) graze well - up to 80% and more of live weight. Good meat is provided by the Tushin sheep, and in the central regions of the USSR - the Romanov sheep (Yaroslavl Gubernia). The pig is the only meat animal in the USSR whose breeding pursues a single goal - to obtain a meat product. The pig previously entering the internal consumption market was most often the ordinary Russian (mongrel) village pig. With the development of bacon production in the USSR, there is a rapid penetration into the market of crosses between peasant pigs and purebred ones, mainly English. At bacon factories, and now occasionally at large slaughterhouses slaughtering pigs for the domestic market, purebred pigs are also encountered. In order to improve the quality of meat in slaughter animals, artificial methods of fattening are practiced: fattening with beet-sugar production waste (pulp), pasture grazing, and stall feeding. Currently, cattle grazing is carried out in the regions of the North Caucasus, the Central Black Earth Region, and the Lower Volga region; sheep grazing is carried out in the southeastern parts of the Lower and Middle Volga regions, in Kazakhstan, Turkestan, and the steppe regions of Siberia. When choosing cattle for fattening, they are usually guided by the animal's appearance, age, fleshiness, as well as weight and health. The goal of cattle fattening is to obtain well-fed, fat, and heavy animals from lean and light ones. Meat procurement. Cattle destined for slaughter are transported from the procurement site (fattening, grazing, etc.) to slaughterhouses. Transportation requires great care and attention because it negatively affects the animals: their temperature rises and they lose weight. Animals delivered to the slaughterhouse are kept for several hours (abroad, 48 hours) in special facilities, the so-called holding yards. Prylaughter rest is necessary because the muscles of tired animals contain so-called fatigue toxins, which disappear only after prolonged rest. In the absence of preslaughter rest, unstable, "low-value" meat is obtained, unsuitable for storage. Currently, experiments are being conducted in the USSR to determine the time necessary for preslaughter holding of animals. Slaughter. The methods of slaughter used are very diverse; each country has its own methods developed by practice. All of them are aimed mainly at obtaining the most complete (thorough) bleeding of the meat. These methods can basically be reduced to two: slaughter with preliminary stunning, where the animal is preliminarily rendered unconscious before slaughter by a blow with some tool, apparatus, or special device, and slaughter without preliminary stunning, where bleeding is performed immediately after felling the animal - the method of throat-cutting. Slaughter by means of throat-cutting, or the Jewish method of slaughter, consists in cutting the neck vessels without preliminary stunning and without destruction of the medulla oblongata. With this method of slaughter, only the front part of the carcass is considered edible (and only if upon inspection the pleura is found to be undamaged) and is called "kosher meat." In the USSR, cattle slaughter is mostly practiced with preliminary stunning of the animal by a blow with a stiletto between the occipital bone and the first cervical vertebra. The blow is delivered with the intent to destroy the medulla oblongata, after which the cervical blood vessels are cut. This method is called the "Russian" method of slaughter. Based on a number of studies, it has been proven that slaughter with preliminary stunning of the animal by a blow to the frontal bones (the American method) and slaughter by means of throat-cutting (without preliminary stunning) yield the greatest yield of blood. With the "Russian" method of slaughter, the blood yield is considered the smallest. The amount of lost blood (in cattle) depending on the method of slaughter (bleeding data according to Holtz) is given in Table 7.

Table 7. Amount of blood obtained as a percentage of live weight of slaughtered cattle 1. When sticking without stunning . . | 3.56 2. When stunning with destruction of the medulla oblongata . . 3.28 3. When stunning with a captive-bolt pistol ....... 3.24 4. When stunning with a hammer...... 3.85 5. When stunning . . - 3.60 4.07 4.50 6.03 3.35 3.59 3.24 3.59 - 3.61 4.18 5.07 5.86 With the horizontal method of dressing, when bleeding occurs while the animal is in a lying position, much less blood flows out than with the vertical method of dressing, when the animal is suspended by its hind limbs. In well-equipped slaughterhouses, the bleeding process is carried out as follows: when the stunned animal falls, shackles are applied to the hind limbs, and the animal is lifted by means of an electric winch onto the bleeding rail (overhead tracks on which the carcasses are bled); at this moment the butcher cuts its cervical blood vessels; the carcass is left in a suspended state for 8-10 minutes to allow the largest amount of blood to drain. The slaughter of small animals (calves, sheep) is usually carried out on special benches with small sides. The animals are placed on these benches on their backs, the head is bent back somewhat, after which the butcher cuts the cervical blood vessels. Then the animal is suspended by the hind limbs to obtain the most complete bleeding possible. The desire to obtain the most complete bleeding during slaughter is explained by the fact that the keeping quality of meat both during transport and during storage depends on the degree of bleeding. Blood, being a source of moisture in the animal organism and being left in the blood vessels, promotes the development of putrefactive microbes and various kinds of microorganisms in the meat, i.e., its rapid spoilage. Dressing and chopping of carcasses. For the keeping quality of meat, protecting it from contamination from the very initial moments of preparation is also of great importance. For this purpose, a very advisable measure has been introduced in the cold slaughterhouses of Argentina, significantly reducing the possibility of meat contamination during slaughter. On the way to the slaughter hall, animals are subjected to thorough washing by means of bathing in special tanks and passing through a special kind of shower. Carcass dressing is performed in a vertical position on a winch. Internal organs are removed with special precautions; in order not to contaminate the carcass with gastrointestinal contents, double ligatures are applied at the sites of the incision of the intestine and esophagus during their extraction. Washing the carcasses with water during their dressing is not allowed: it introduces extra infection and delays the formation of a surface crust on the meat. In cattle, all internal organs are removed, including the kidneys; vessels and tissue residues are cleaned. For obtaining good quality meat, thorough carcass dressing is a necessary condition, because in the process of it, the meat of healthy animals can easily become infected with a significant amount of bacteria, which multiply rapidly, penetrate deep into the meat, and cause its rapid spoilage. After dressing, carcasses at slaughterhouses are often subjected to chopping. At the present time, raz

Figure 1. Retail chopping of cattle carcasses (table beef): 1 - hind shank; 2 - heel of round; 3 - rump; 4 - flank steak; 5 - top sirloin cap; 6 - sirloin tip; 7 - sirloin; 8 - tenderloin; 9 - tenderloin strip; 10 - tenderloin strip trim; 11 - strip loin; 12 - rib eye; 13 - edge strip; 14 - chuck trim; 15 - brisket bone; 16 - brisket (middle); 17 - curl; 18 - chuck tender; 19a - upper part of the blade from the 1st joint; 19b - lower part of the blade up to the 1st joint; 20 - chuck roll; 21 - neck; 22 - neck trim; 23 - fore shank; 24 - shank.

ching of carcasses is standardized (Fig. 1). Cattle carcasses are first chopped along the spine into two symmetrical parts, then each half in turn is divided into two parts by a transverse incision between the 11th and 12th ribs. Such chopping into four parts—quarters—ensures a more rapid cooling of the meat, and if it is conserved by cold—thorough freezing. This chopping is also convenient for transport and storage, because it facilitates the carrying and stacking of meat. Small cattle. Calves are not subjected to chopping; in addition, they usually enter the market with the head and lower parts of the legs. Sheep and goats are also not subjected to chopping. Usually, their heads and lower parts of the legs are removed at the hock and calcaneal joints. The kidneys remain with the carcass. In pigs, during dressing, the skin is removed, the head and lower parts of the legs are removed, as in sheep. Carcass chopping usually takes place in chilling departments.—Preparation of meat for storage. After dressing, carcasses are usually sent to the chilling room—a room with an air temperature from 10° to 12° and with good artificial ventilation. In the chilling room, carcasses give off their animal heat, evaporate part of the moisture, are freed from remaining blood, and dry slightly on the surface, which subsequently protects them from the action of dust and air microbes. Products of animal slaughter. All products obtained after slaughter are divided into 1) main, 2) secondary, 3) by-products, and 4) waste. The main product is the carcass (meat proper). Secondary products: fat (suet, omental fat, mesentery), offal (head, lower extremities, trachea, lungs, heart, liver, spleen, all together constituting the so-called pluck), stomach, and kidneys. Offal is consumed as food on a par with meat. By-products: skin, blood, intestines, urinary bladder, hair, bristle, horns, hooves, endocrine glands (goes mainly for technical purposes). Waste and refuse: external and internal genital organs, fetuses, intestinal mucus, gastrointestinal contents—manure (used for various technical purposes).—A distinction is made between hot, cooled, chilled, and frozen meat. 1) Hot meat is meat obtained immediately after slaughter, when it has not yet lost its animal heat—has not cooled, has not gone into rigor mortis. The signs of such meat are as follows: when pressed with a finger, it is elastic, and the depression under the finger immediately evens out, the muscles on the cross-section are dry, have a lacquered hue, do not wet the fingers when touched, are of a uniformly red color with a violet hue; smell—fresh blood, reaction to litmus is alkaline or neutral; from this meat an aromatic clear broth is obtained, but the meat itself when boiled and roasted is hard, in places viscous. 2) Cooled meat—kept at slaughterhouses or warehouses for 12-24 hours after slaughter. Signs of such meat: when pressed with a finger, it is not devoid of elasticity, the resulting pit evens out, albeit slowly; the muscles on the cross-section slightly wet the finger when touched, have a matte hue; their color resembles the color of ripe raspberry, the smell is aromatic. The reaction to litmus is weakly acidic or neutral. 3) Chilled meat—kept in artificial cold at a temperature from 0° to 4° and having an internal temperature averaging +3°. By its signs, it is identical to cooled meat, but differs in greater density. Chilled meat is more stable during storage, tender, tasty, and aromatic; the reaction to litmus is acidic or weakly acidic. 4) Frozen meat is meat frozen at a temperature of -2° to -18°. Such meat is dense, does not lend itself to cutting and can only be chopped or sawn. When struck with a hard object, it emits a distinct sound. The color of the meat is pinkish-red. On the cross-section, the meat is penetrated by ice crystals, in the interior (at a depth of 8-10 cm) having a temperature of -6°. Meat prepared with the aid of cold (chilled and frozen) was for a long time considered meat of lower quality than hot meat in terms of nutrition, taste, and digestibility. However, further research showed the utter untenability of this assertion. This is shown by the comparative analysis of the chemical composition of frozen and fresh beef and mutton given in Table 8 (in %) (according to A. Gautier). Table 8. Mutton | Beef Constituents Water ............ Globulin and albumins of aqueous extract .... Peptones .......... Myosin .......... Myostromin ....... Insoluble substances (keratins, plates) .... Extractives (leukomain enzymes) ............ Glycogen ......... Fats and cholesterols . . Soluble mineral salts ......... Insoluble mineral salts ......... i C o a 74.8 < 73.66 174.75 3.32 2.14 i 3.06 1.33 \ 1.29 | 2.24 8.31 j10.33 110.96 4.49 ! 4.94 i 4.30 s d 73.96 2.69 2.56 9.29 6.41 0.86 | 0.75 | 0.24 i 0.94 0.49 0.40 5.23 0.60 0.95 !

0.65 1.01 0.16 2.04 0.47 0.65 j 0.44 0.44 0.44 The effect of cold on meat is expressed in the fact that it suspends the action of enzymes without destroying them; enzymatic processes temporarily cease. Distinction of meat of various animal species. The ability to distinguish meat of various species of slaughtered animals has a certain practical importance. Cases of replacement of high-value meat with less valuable meat are not uncommon, e.g., beef with horsemeat, mutton with goat meat, etc. The distinctive features for recognizing meat of various animal species serve 1) color, density, smell of the meat, 2) color, density and amount of fat (Table 9). Post-mortem changes in meat. After the slaughter of an animal, a series of changes occur in the meat, which ultimately lead to its complete decomposition. Two groups of changes are distinguished: a) changes of physical and chemical character proceeding without the participation of microorganisms, and b) all those processes of meat decomposition which are caused by the activity of microorganisms. The first group of changes includes cadaveric, or muscular rigidity. It begins in the muscles of the head and nape and gradually spreads to the entire musculature of the body; the muscles lose their softness, elasticity, contract and harden, as a result of which the joints become immobile. The process of rigor mortis begins a few minutes after the onset of death, but there are also cases of delay. These external signs of rigidity are accompanied by a gradual increase in the amount of lactic acid in the meat, as a result of which the initial alkaline or amphoteric reaction of the meat changes to acidic. The gradual increase in the amount of lactic acid subsequently again entails the dissolution of muscle proteins and the cessation of rigidity. Simultaneously with these changes, the action of enzymes is revealed, causing chemical processes of cleavage Distinctive features Table 9. Comparative synoptic table of meat originating from different animals (according to Violet). Beef Bull's meat |

Bull's meat ' Cow's meat Veal Horsemeat Mutton Goatskin Lamb Pork Color Dark red- Bright red

Bright red; Dark red- Pale or pinkish Pale or pinkish quickly black-ening in the air

red pinkish j dark pink and even red on the extremities The tenderer, the younger the animal Dense in adults, soft in old and emaciated Dense Dense, leathery Soft Soft; denser on the extremities Surface

stanist

' Smell Fresh, reminiscent of the bull's smell Fresh, slightly aromatic Fat There is no external fat, but instead a white tissue; internal fat is very white External fatty layer more or less abundant, white or yellowish; internal fat dense white or yellowish More resistant, but coarser-grained than that of the bull; little or no mottled, depending on age, breed, etc. Fresh in the hind parts, sometimes resembling the smell of milk; smell less significant than that of the bull External fatty layer often absent in old cows; internal fat white or yellowish, usually softer than bull's Fine-grained, never mottled Fresh, easily turning sour- Resistant and coarse-grained, not mottled Barely noticeable in healthy, resembling the smell of a stable in lean ones, especially after the addition of sulfuric acid External External fatty layer often absent. internal fat dense, white or yellowish, oily, often slimy

Resistant and coarse-grained, not mottled Fresh, aromatic Resistant, coarse-grained, not mottled Nutmeg External fatty fat layer exists only in some areas; internal fat is dense and white External fatty layer usually absent; internal fat pale yellow or even yellow Little resistant, fine-grained, not mottled Very resistant, finely and densely grained, strongly marbled on the carcass and never on the extremities None or j None or resembles the smell of pig ! smell of milk; easily turns sour External fatty layer is found only in some animals and only in some areas; internal fat in good ones is white, in lean ones grayish-saffron color External fatty layer is thick, internal fat white, grayish-white or pink soft; in an old boar or old pig the outer layer is thick, hard and tasteless meat of protein substances. The further action of lactic acid together with enzymatic cleavages causes the ripening of the meat. It loses its initial stiffness, acquires tenderness and a slightly sour aromatic smell and taste. Eber calls this period the period of sour fermentation. Lactic acid also acts on connective tissue, turning it into glutin, which loosens the meat and facilitates its chewing. An external sign of the impending ripening of meat is the release of meat juice even with weak pressure; from fresh warm meat, juice is squeezed out with difficulty. The processes of the most successful ripening take place in chilled meat when stored for 8-14 days in a chamber with a temperature from 0° to + 4°. From the point of view of modern hygiene, it is necessary to strive to ensure that only ripened meat is released for consumption, and consequently the consumer receives a tender, tasty and easily digestible product. Decomposition processes caused by microorganisms can generally be included in the concept of "putrefaction". It is caused by various types of microorganisms getting onto the surface of the meat and, thanks to their vital activity, causing putrefactive decomposition. Among the numerous microorganisms causing the putrefaction of meat, various types of Bacillus proteus and especially Bacillus proteus vulgaris occupy the first place. The process of putrefaction in the meat of healthy animals usually begins with the connective tissue and the surface layers of the carcass and then spreads along the connective tissue pathways around the bones and large vessels deep into the adjacent muscles (Schneidemühl). With the gradual development of putrefaction on the surface of the meat, first a thin, and then a thicker soiled layer is formed, and finally the disintegration of the connective tissue of the muscles begins - putrefaction becomes complete. With a strong development of putrefaction, the intermuscular connective tissue is colored gray and becomes soiled. Meat on the cut appears porous, sometimes pierced with gas bubbles; initially yellow or white fat becomes greenish. Under the influence of putrefactive bacteria, smell, color, consistency, reaction change. From the appearance of NH₃, H₂S, mercaptans and volatile fatty acids, the smell becomes foul. The color from the action of decomposition products on the coloring matter of muscles becomes gray-red, dirty gray, gray-green. The consistency becomes soft, flabby; parts strongly affected by putrefaction turn into a soiled mass; the reaction becomes alkaline. Putrid meat is considered unconditionally harmful to health. - Foul-sour fermentation. Simple sour fermentation is distinguished, i.e., post-mortem formation of lactic acid, causing the ripening of meat, and so-called foul-sour fermentation, which, for example, is observed (according to Eber) in game placed on top of each other or packed, which has still retained its animal heat. Meat of packed game that has not been sufficiently cooled becomes hot, foul. This phenomenon is also observed in the meat of slaughtered animals that has retained its animal heat, mainly in the thick parts near the bones. Such meat is soft, on the cut surface it has a greenish color (musculature and bones). Its reaction is acidic; NH₃ is absent, but H₂S is detected (Reinsch). - Glowing of meat. Meat represents an exceptionally favorable nutrient medium for all kinds of fungi. The phenomenon of glowing of meat is explained by the vital activity of bacteria that accidentally got onto the meat. Glowing is caused by Photobacterium Pflugeri. Such meat, although not harmful to health, should nevertheless be considered of low value due to deviation from normal properties (Ostertag). Meat products. From meat and offal, a number of very nutritious meat products are manufactured: corned beef, bacon, ham, dried and smoked meat, sausages and pâtés. Corned beef is meat conserved by salting. For salting, NaCl, saltpeter, sugar and spices are usually used. Corned beef is a drier and tougher product than ordinary meat, because during salting a significant percentage of moisture comes out of the muscles and forms brine with salt. For methods of salting, see Preservation, preserves. The content of salt and water in corned beef with different methods of salting meat can be seen from the following table: Table 10. Method of salting meat

Salt

28.77%. During salting, a certain decrease in the nutrient substances of meat occurs; it loses a significant amount of water (Table 10) and a certain amount of organic substances (Font, Polenske, Nothwang). The brine also extracts a large amount of potassium salts from the meat. In view of the significant extraction of phosphoric acid and extractive substances from meat during salting, salted meat is considered a less valuable product than fresh meat (Polenske). The temperature of the salting room should be 4-10°. Storage of salted meat is recommended at a temperature from 0° to +4°. Ham is usually called pork that has undergone only salting or preliminary salting and then smoking. Most rarely, ham is prepared in the form of hind hams, less often front hams (shoulders) go into it, and sometimes other parts of the pork carcass. Bacon is the name for pork butchered in a special way and prepared in the form of salted half-carcasses. It represents a high-quality product, differing from ordinary pork by a relatively low fat content and a high content of meat proper. Animals intended for bacon must meet the following requirements: a) live weight from 75 to 120 kg, b) age not older than 10 months, c) breed improved by crossing local breeds with white Annamese pigs (Yorkshire); d) good fatness and grain feeding, e) males castrated at an early age, f) females that have not had piglets and are noticeably not pregnant. When butchering the carcass for bacon, the head is removed at the first cervical vertebra and internal fat is extracted. The carcasses are cut along the spine into halves; from each half are removed: the spinal column, shoulder, sternum, pelvic bone, ribs are sawed out; the entire half-carcass is cleaned of fringes and fat. The half-carcass butchered in this way goes to salting. Salting of bacon halves is carried out at a temperature from 4° to 5°. Salting is carried out by injecting brine into the thickness of the muscles and holding in brine. Dried meat. Preparation of this kind of meat is developed in Uruguay (South America). For its manufacture, beef is cut into strips and immersed for several hours in a strong salt solution. Upon removal from the brine, the meat is rubbed with salt and, after salting, dried in the sun for 15-20 days. In terms of nutrition, it is not inferior to fresh meat, but contains a lot of salt. Meat powder. Meat is mechanically freed from fat, bones, tendons, and layers of connective tissue and then passed through a cutlet machine. The crushed meat mass is salted, laid out in a thin layer on zinc sheets, and subjected to the action of heated air in special ovens, initially at a temperature of 37°, and then the temperature gradually rises to 60-70°; final drying takes place at a temperature of 100°. The dried meat mass is ground in special mills into a fine powder of a light brown color. In its fresh form, it has the smell and taste of broth. From four weight parts of fresh meat, one part of meat powder is obtained. Its chemical composition is as follows: nitrogenous substances 57.29%, extractive and glue substances 23.79%, fatty substances 9.73%, mineral substances 4.45%, water 4.73%. It is used mainly for feeding patients in soups or mixed with boiled potatoes, vegetables, etc. Its digestibility differs little from the digestibility of fresh meat (A. M. Petrov). Sausages - see Sausage products. Pâtés represent a variety of sausage production products. The best grades of meat and fat go into the manufacture of higher grades of pâtés. The famous Strasbourg pâtés consist of crushed goose liver, and in some cases of goose meat and fat, truffles, and spices. For greater stability during storage, the pâté mass is enclosed not in intestines, but in hermetically sealed tin cans. In the USSR, pâtés are manufactured from the liver, lungs, and heart of cattle and pigs. Smoked meat (brisket, loin, hams, smoked sausages) - meat subjected to the action of smoke (see Preservation, canned goods). Veterinary and sanitary supervision. Slaughterhouse veterinary and sanitary supervision is established at all slaughter points. Its duty includes pre-slaughter and post-slaughter inspection of animals and taking samples for laboratory testing. The inspection of slaughter animals has the purpose of detecting diseases that affect the quality of meat and its suitability for human food or require appropriate veterinary and sanitary measures. The inspection is carried out on the day of slaughter. Animals suspected of contracting infectious diseases are subject to isolation (quarantine) until the nature of the disease is clarified. Animals sick with anthrax, symptomatic anthrax, cattle plague, and rabies are not allowed to be slaughtered. All processes of slaughtering animals, preparation and butchering of carcasses are carried out in the presence and under the control of a veterinarian. After slaughter, internal organs and the carcasses themselves are inspected. Internal organs are inspected at the place of their extraction. Examination and inspection of carcasses is carried out in the cooling departments of slaughterhouses. On the basis of veterinary and sanitary inspection, meat products are divided into 4 categories: 1st category - meat that is completely fit, released from slaughterhouses for sale without delay; 2nd category - meat that is conditionally fit, subject to neutralization under the supervision of veterinary and sanitary supervision before release from slaughterhouses; neutralization is carried out by boiling, steam sterilization, salting, or prolonged cooling (storage in a refrigerator); 3rd category - meat of lower value, with reduced taste and nutritional quality, but allowed for human food; this category includes meat a) having some deviation from the norm in terms of taste, smell, color, composition, and stability, b) very lean meat, but obtained from a healthy animal, c) meat of calves slaughtered at an age of less than 2 weeks and foals at an age of less than 4 weeks; 4th category - meat unfit for human food and subject to destruction or disposal for technical purposes. Carcasses recognized by veterinary supervision as fit for food are stamped with marks indicating the slaughterhouse or slaughter point in such a quantity that on each individual part of the slaughterhouse butchering there are at least 2 stamps. Meat of all kinds (except horsemeat), completely fit, is marked with blue ink, with a stamp having a rectangular shape. Conditionally fit meat - with blue ink, with a stamp having the shape of an isosceles triangle; less valuable meat, regardless of the species of animal from which it is obtained, is marked with red ink, with a stamp having an oval shape. Imported meat. All meat and meat products imported into cities and settlements by rail, water, and dirt roads in fresh, chilled, frozen, salted, smoked, and other forms, as well as raw pork, beef, and mutton fat, must be subjected to veterinary and sanitary inspection before entering sale. Imported meat and meat products and fat without veterinary and sanitary supervision marks must be provided with certificates from the village council and district executive committee pertaining to the well-being of the place of export of meat regarding epizootics. All available parts of meat carcasses and organs are subjected to examination. Additional examinations of meat for the presence of finnae, trichinoscopy of pig meat, examination of the nasal cavity, larynx, and trachea during the inspection of horsemeat are mandatory in all cases (rules of veterinary and sanitary inspection of slaughter animals and examination and rejection of meat products dated June 12-18, 1928). Veterinary and sanitary inspection of imported meat products is carried out at special points - at import meat inspection stations and meat control stations. The task of veterinary and sanitary supervision in transport is also to prevent the spread of infectious diseases among animals by cattle and raw animal products and their transmission to humans. The duties of veterinary and sanitary supervision representatives include inspecting the cattle to be dispatched, issuing appropriate certificates of its state, and detaining sick animals. During transportation, animals are inspected by representatives of veterinary and sanitary supervision at those stations where cattle are watered. Export and import cattle are inspected by a veterinarian of control export-import points. At the station of arrival, animals are again subject to inspection, which must be carried out no later than 24 hours from the time of arrival. Rail transport of meat. Fresh meat is transported in the form of fresh-killed (cooled), chilled, and frozen. Transportation of fresh-killed and chilled meat is carried out in insulated cars in a suspended state. For this purpose, insulated cars are cooled using ice and salt to a temperature of +2°. Chilled meat intended for transport is dried from the surface and cooled to +3°. In the cold season, fresh-killed meat is transported in ordinary cars with some insulation to avoid freezing. Frozen meat is also transported in insulated cars, stacked. In winter, upon the onset of a more or less uniform low temperature, transportation of frozen meat in ordinary freight cars is allowed. Usually, meat is transported without packaging. Offal or pluck is allowed for transportation only in the cold season in a well-frozen state, packaged either in hard (boxes, barrels) or soft packaging (gunny sacks, bags).

Canned meat products—salt beef, bacon, hams, lard, fatback, and others—are transported both in rigid containers and in soft ones, with the exception of wet-salted beef, which is packed in barrels. The main task of transport is the delivery of meat and meat products to their destinations in the same good condition in which they were loaded at the procurement sites. Car defect, its contamination, foreign odors, increase in temperature en route, and transport delays can cause spoilage or contribute to a significant depreciation of the meat. Storage. Only meat from healthy animals in a fresh state is accepted for storage, and each carcass or part thereof is subjected to a veterinary-sanitary inspection both for the presence of pathological changes and regarding its sanitary condition. Freshly slaughtered and chilled meat is stored in chambers with a temperature from 0° to 4° in carcasses and parts and in a suspended state. Constant veterinary-sanitary observation is established over the meat located in the storage chambers. The storage life of chilled meat usually does not exceed 3 weeks from the day of slaughter. Frozen meat is stored at a temperature from -8° to -10°, stacked in piles, between which passages are arranged for inspecting products during storage. The maximum storage duration according to refrigerator rules for beef and mutton is 6 months, and for pork, 4 months. Salted beef is stored in cellars at a temperature from +1° to +4°; storage duration is 10-12 months. Bacon is stored at a temperature of -2° to -4°. Its storage duration is 4 months. The storage of fresh and chilled meat in uncooled premises is not permitted. Frozen meat is allowed to be stored in uncooled premises only if a constant outdoor temperature of -8° and below has established itself. Before releasing meat and meat products from storage places to distribution places, they are subjected to a preliminary veterinary-sanitary inspection. Vans and automobiles used for the transportation of meat and meat products must be lined with galvanized iron and provided with a clean tarpaulin to protect the meat en route from dust, dirt, and atmospheric precipitation. Requirements for meat retail outlets. Trade in fresh raw, salted meat, and offal is carried out in special shops called butcher shops and meat stores, or in isolated premises of cooperatives—meat departments, as well as in meat stalls. Trade in horse meat is carried out in separate butcher shops intended exclusively for the sale of horse meat. Butcher shops consist of three rooms: 1) the shop proper—with a counter, product display, and cash register, 2) a back room (storeroom), and 3) a warehouse with an icehouse. With a large distribution capacity of the shop, a) an office room and b) a rest room for the staff are added. Counters of meat stores are covered with marble slabs or slabs of polished artificial stone; shelves and showcases are faced with marble. Hangers for suspending meat carcasses and their parts are lined with iron. Instruments used in the sale of meat and meat products are kept clean and stored in special cases. Scales for dispensing goods must have a marble slab on one side. Scale pans can be made of smooth, easily cleaned material. Trade in meat or offal in stalls is permitted only in bazaars and markets. Stalls trading in meat must form a special meat row, isolated from other rows. Shop butchering. Upon entering the butcher shop, the carcass is divided into grades for sale. Division into grades is caused by the fact that meat in its individual parts varies greatly in nutritional value and taste. Division into grades is based on the presence in each grade of a varying amount of tendons and ligaments, which greatly worsen the quality of the meat. They make the meat tough, stringy, and less nutritious. Such meat is chewed with difficulty and is poorly digested. By the amount of tendons, the grades differ: first grade—10.3%, second—14.3%, third—15.0%, fourth—23.4%. In the front part of the animal's body, which participates more in work, there is a significantly greater amount of tendons than in the rear; the meat is coarse and stringy. Highest quality meat is located in the hindquarters and along the spine on the back. The lower parts of the carcass, containing many tendons, are considered lower in quality than parts located closer to the spine. The first grade usually includes parts of the back and hindquarters of the carcass, while the remaining grades include the front and brisket. In various cities of the USSR, there are various methods of butchering: Moscow, Leningrad, Kharkov, etc. Standard sorting norms are currently being developed,

Figure 3. Figure 2. Retail butchering of mutton carcasses: 1—hindquarter with shank; 2—kidney part with two ribs; 3—loin; 4—flank; 5—

brisket; b.-neck. Figure 3. Retail cutting of pork carcasses: 1-ham; 2-cutlet part; 3-shoulder; 4 - brisket; 5-belly; 6 - neck part. which must eliminate this difference in cutting (Fig. 1-3). The methodology of research of meat and meat products consists of three main stages: a) antemortem inspection of animals, b) inspection of meat, and c) inspection of meat products. Antemortem inspection of animals reduces to their external inspection with the goal of separating clearly sick animals or those suspected of disease. During the inspection, attention is drawn to the appearance of the animal and the state of the natural openings. Suspicious animals are subjected to a more thorough inspection and thermometry. Upon the discovery of elevated temperature, the animal is sent to quarantine, where it is kept until recovery or until its slaughter at special sanitary slaughterhouses. Inspection of meat consists of the inspection of the skin, internal organs, and the meat itself (carcass). The methodology of inspection of internal organs and the meat itself is based mainly on macroscopical investigation; if necessary, microscopical and bacteriological investigation are also used. During macroscopical investigation of internal organs, attention is paid to their appearance, size, shape, color, consistency, and changes in the lymphatic system; during the inspection of the meat itself—to the appearance of the carcass and changes in the lymph system. Macroscopical investigation of organs and tissues is performed by means of inspection, palpation, and cutting them. In cattle and pigs, to detect the presence of cysticerci, a cut of the chewing muscles and heart is made, and the tongue is palpated; additionally, the intercostal muscles, the muscular part of the diaphragm, and the lumbar muscles (m. psoas) are investigated. Cuts are made across the entire thickness of the muscles. In horses, the nasal cavity, larynx, and trachea are additionally investigated for glanders. In the presence of suspicion of a septicemic-pyemic disease, resort is made to microscopical, bacterioscopical, bacteriological, and in some cases biological investigations, for which a piece of muscle 8x8x8 cm in size surrounded by fascia is cut out from the flexors and extensors of the front and rear limbs, and one meat lymph gland (scapular and the gland of the knee fold) along with the surrounding connective and adipose tissue is taken from the opposite half of the carcass. In addition, the spleen, kidney, and one of the tubular bones are taken whole. When inspecting meat at slaughterhouses, main attention is concentrated on its pathologico-anatomical changes, while when inspecting so-called imported meat—additionally on the degree of its freshness. Auxiliary special methods of investigation include histological and bacteriological. Histological investigation of meat is used mainly with regard to pork, which is investigated for trichinae, and is known under the name of trichinoscopy. To investigate pork carcasses for the presence of trichinae, 2 samples weighing 15-25 g (the size of a walnut) are taken from the legs of the diaphragm. From each sample, using scissors, 24 slices the size of an oat grain are made. The slices are placed on a special glass known under the name of a compressorium, and are examined under a microscope at a magnification of 30-50 times, in a fresh state, without staining. Histological investigation is also used in any suspicious change when macroscopical data are insufficient for making a diagnosis (actinomycosis, sarcosporidiosis, etc.). In this case, slices are made on a freezing microtome and subjected to staining (hematoxylin, eosin). In doubtful cases, the bacterioscopical method is also used: smears are prepared on object or cover glasses from blood, exudates, transudates, and other pathological objects, which are fixed, stained, and examined under a microscope. Methods of laboratory investigation of meat and meat products have the goal of clarifying a) the state of the meat or meat products, b) the presence of pathologico-anatomical changes, and c) their nature. For this purpose, both the organoleptic method and the microscopical, bacterioscopical, bacteriological, biological, and also chemical methods are used. For investigation, samples are taken from 2-3 places from the carcass or its parts; during the investigation of salted meat, the brine is also subjected to investigation. Investigation of products for freshness consists of 1) determination of organoleptic properties (appearance, color, meat smell, taste), 2) determination of the reaction to litmus, 3) the test for ammonia according to Eber, 4) the test for hydrogen sulfide, 5) the boiling test, and 6) microscopical investigation. Appearance. All features of the sample noticeable to the naked eye are noted: the presence of mechanical contamination, spots of a special kind, mold, etc. Color. All possible types of abnormal coloration of meat and its products are studied especially carefully, with attention being paid to the coloration of the meat and fat layers. In salted meat and canned goods, the appearance and color of the brine and broth are noted. Investigation for color is performed both from the surface and in the depth of the product. Attention is also paid to the possible presence of inclusions in the form of bubbles the size of a hemp seed, indicating cysticercus infestation of the meat. These inclusions are cut out, clamped between two object glasses, and studied microscopically. Smell. In addition to the olfaction test from the surface, to detect signs of a bad smell inside the thickness of the meat, a heated knife or fork is inserted into it in various places and attention is paid to the smell perceived on the surface of the removed knife. The consistency of meat is tested by pressure with a finger on its surface. With an elastic consistency, the resulting depression quickly evens out, while with a flabby one, it remains for a more or less prolonged time. The taste of meat is tested additionally in case of uncertainty of other indicators of spoilage of the sent product. Determination of reaction. To determine the reaction of the tested product, cuts are made on it in various places, into which red and blue litmus papers moistened with distilled water are placed, pressing them to the product with a clean glass rod; after 10 minutes, these papers are transferred to some white surface to compare them with paper moistened with distilled water alone; the change in color characterizes acidic or alkaline reactions. Ammonia test: to 1 cm³ of Nessler's reagent (see Ammonia) are added drop by drop 10 drops of extract, or to 1 cm³ of extract drop by drop 10 drops of reagent. In the presence of ammonia, a yellow coloration appears ranging from turbidity to sediment. The degree of turbidity determines the relative amount of ammonia. Eber's test. Reagent: 1 volumetric part of 25% hydrochloric acid, 3 parts of 96% alcohol, and 1 part of ether. 2 cm³ of Eber's reagent are poured into an ungraduated cylinder or wide test tube. Having plugged the vessel with a clean stopper, the reagent is shaken, after which the stopper is removed and the test tube is immediately closed with a new stopper, through which a thick glass rod with a hook-shaped bent lower ring is threaded, to which a piece of the investigated product is attached using sterilized tweezers. After this, without touching the walls of the test tube with the rod and carefully advancing it through the opening of the stopper, the rod is positioned so that its lower end, on which the piece of the investigated product is fixed, is located 1-2 cm above the level of the liquid contained in the test tube. In the presence of ammonia, a mist or cloud from the formation of ammonium chloride is visible near the investigated object. Conditions ensuring the accuracy of the reaction: 1) correct preparation of the reagent (concentration of HCl) and imparting to the investigated object the temperature of the surrounding air (not used for hot-steamed meat; has relative significance when investigating canned products). Test for hydrogen sulfide. A portion of the comminuted product is placed in a glass jar equipped with a well-ground stopper, then a strip of filter paper onto the surface of which 1-2 drops of a solution of lead acetate have been applied is lowered there, and the paper is fixed in the jar by clamping its end between the surface of the neck and the stopper of the jar. The experiment is stopped after 15 minutes. In the presence of hydrogen sulfide, the drop of lead salt solution is colored from light brown to black. The sensitivity of the reaction can be increased if an alkaline lead salt solution is used, which is prepared by adding caustic soda to the lead salt solution until the formed precipitate of lead oxide dissolves. In the presence of garlic in the meat product, the reaction for H₂S gives non-specific results. Boiling tests. 1) The investigated meat is boiled in a covered small beaker and tested for olfaction (also the broth). 2) A piece of meat is immersed in boiling water for a few moments on tweezers and, having removed it, tested for olfaction. Although the boiling test is not very sensitive, nevertheless it is often possible to discover spoiled meat with it in such cases when cold raw meat does not reveal a bad smell. The presence of pathologico-anatomical changes is established by means of microscopical, bacterioscopical, bacteriological investigations. The nature of the meat is determined by the smell it has when boiled, by the color and consistency of the fat, by the anatomical features of the structure of organs and bones, by the determination of the iodine number of muscle fat, by the presence of glycogen in the meat (in dry beef—from 0% to 0.08%, in dry horsemeat—up to 5%), the precipitation reaction, and complement fixation and anaphylaxis.

When examining salted meat, in addition to determining its freshness, attention is paid to the quantitative content of salt, saltpeter, and nitrates. Meat of sick animals. Based on the regulations issued in furtherance of the Veterinary Statute, the following rules apply to the meat of sick animals: I. The entire carcass, fat, internal organs, head, and feet are not allowed for food upon the detection of 1) anthrax, 2) symptomatic anthrax, 3) rabies, 4) glanders, 5) cattle plague, 6) septicemia and pyemia (suspicion of the existence of septicemia and pyemia in slaughtered animals must arise whenever they have inflammation of the intestines, udder, uterus, joints, tendon sheaths, hooves, umbilical cord, lungs, pleura and peritoneum, skin and subcutaneous tissue, kidneys, hemorrhages in meat, lymph nodes, and hemorrhages and ecchymoses on the pericardium and endocardium); 7) tuberculosis, in the presence of emaciation and in mixed blood infection, when softening of tuberculous foci is observed regardless of the state of fatness; 8) swine erysipelas; 9) hemorrhagic septicemia and swine fever; and 10) tetanus, in the presence of muscle changes; 11) jaundice, if all parts of the carcass, 24 hours after slaughter, are still colored yellow or yellow-green, or in the presence of emaciation; 12) general dropsy, if 24 hours after slaughter the hydremic condition of the meat does not disappear; 13) multiple tumors in the muscles, bones, and lymph nodes when they cannot be removed; 14) strong odor in the meat (medicinal, sexual, urine, fish, blubber) and unpleasant taste, if a boiling or roasting test performed 24 hours after slaughter shows that the meat retains its defect; 15) severe emaciation due to any disease. II. The entire carcass except for the fat is not allowed for food upon the detection of 1) Cysticercus inermis of cattle, Cysticercus cellulosae of pigs, sheep, and goats in an amount of more than one cysticercus (bladder worm), live or dead, in the majority of sections of muscles favorite to cysticerci, or in the presence of wateriness or color change; in this case, the liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach, intestines, brain, and udder are allowed for food if no cysticerci (bladder worms) are found in them; 2) sarcosporidia, if the meat is watery or strongly discolored, with the fat being released without restriction; 3) trichinae in pigs, in the presence of distinct muscle changes; 4) echinococci in the pig carcass. III. Only the affected parts of meat carcasses or organs are not allowed for human food upon the detection of 1) contagious pleuropneumonia; 2) tuberculosis, except for the cases indicated in clause 7, section I, wherein an organ is considered tuberculous even if only the corresponding lymph node is affected by tuberculosis; 3) actinomycosis and botryomycosis; 4) tetanus, except for the cases indicated in clause 10, section I; 5) single tumors; 6) swine erysipelas; 7) hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle and other animals; and 8) hemorrhagic septicemia and swine fever, in the absence of muscle changes; 9) animal parasites in internal organs, and in cases where the parasites cannot be thoroughly removed from them, the organs are destroyed; if careful removal of the parasites is possible, then upon removal of the affected parts, the organs are released without restriction; 10) other diseases accompanied by inflammatory changes and degenerations of organs, muscles, extremities, and joints; 11) contamination of the lungs and other organs by the contents of the gastrointestinal tract; 12) difficult-to-wash contaminations of meat; 13) changes in the color of the meat and its consistency: pigment deposits (melanosis, xanthosis), bruising, fractures, hemorrhages with infiltration of adjacent tissues, wateriness, scar and calcified formations (calculi), etc. IV. Conditionally fit meat products, not entirely wholesome and allowed for food only after preliminary disinfection, include 1) fat in the cases indicated in clause 2 of section II, with the exception of measly cattle fat; it is released without preliminary disinfection if careful examination reveals no cysticerci (bladder worms) in it. Pig backfat, in the case indicated in clause 3 of section II, if it contains no muscle layers, is released without restriction. 2) The entire carcass, excluding the affected parts and its organs (section II), upon the detection of: a) acute miliary tuberculosis in the absence of signs of emaciation; b) swine erysipelas, except for cases of septicemia; c) hemorrhagic septicemia and swine fever, without muscle changes; d) hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle and other animals; e) bacteria of meat poisoning in the organs, but not in the meat itself in calves; f) cysticerci (bladder worms) of cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats, except for the cases indicated in clause 1 of section II; g) trichinae in pigs, except for the cases indicated in clause 3 of section II; h) in the presence of foot-and-mouth disease lesions, the head with the tongue, as well as the esophagus, stomach, and extremities up to the pastern joint, are released after being subjected to scalding in boiling water under the supervision of veterinary inspection. V. Disinfection of conditionally fit products. Fat is subjected to rendering in cases where cysticerci (bladder worms) are found in pigs, sheep, and goats in an amount of more than one cysticercus in the majority of sections of muscles favorite to cysticerci (bladder worms) and in the presence of wateriness or color changes. Fat of cattle carcasses affected by cysticerci is released without preliminary disinfection. Meat and fat are disinfected by boiling or steam sterilization 1) in tuberculosis in cases of an acute miliary process without signs of emaciation; 2) in the presence of meat poisoning bacteria in the organs, but not in the meat itself in calves; 3) in swine erysipelas except for cases of significant muscle changes; 4) in hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle and other animals; 5) in swine fever except for those cases where significant muscle changes are observed; 6) in trichinosis of pigs in the absence of signs of distinct muscle changes. Meat and fat are disinfected by boiling, steam sterilization, or salting in cysticercosis (measles) of pigs, sheep, and goats if the infection is light; by boiling, steam sterilization, salting, or cooling and freezing in cysticercosis (measles) of cattle in cases of light infection. If boiling or sterilization is impossible, rendering of fat is permitted, while the meat and internal organs are utilized for technical purposes or destroyed. The disinfection of conditionally fit meat and fat is carried out under the supervision of the veterinary-sanitary inspection of the slaughterhouse and must meet the following requirements: a) fat is considered disinfected if, when rendered in open cauldrons, it turns completely liquid and when rendered in steam apparatuses, before being discharged therefrom, it has been subjected to a temperature of 100°; b) boiling of meat is considered sufficient if the meat in its internal parts has acquired a gray color (beef) or white-gray (pork), and the juice flowing from a fresh cut is not colored with blood. Trichinous meat must be chopped into pieces no more than 10 cm thick and must be boiled for at least 2½ hours from the start of boiling. Meat affected by other animal parasites and bacteria must also be boiled for at least 2½ hours from the start of boiling, and the pieces of meat must not be thicker than 15 cm; c) steam sterilization of meat is considered sufficient if its internal layers have been subjected to a temperature of 80° for at least 10 minutes or if the meat in pieces weighing no more than 2½ kg has been subjected for at least 2 hours to the action of steam under a pressure of ½ atmosphere, and in the internal layers it has discolored to a gray color, and the juice flowing from the cut has no bloody coloring; d) in salting, meat is considered disinfected no earlier than three weeks later. Meat for salting must be chopped into pieces weighing no more than 2½ kg; at the same time, it must be sprinkled with salt or placed in a salt solution containing 25 parts by weight of NaCl per 100 parts by weight of water; e) to kill cattle bladder worms by keeping them in a cooling chamber (refrigerators), at least three weeks are required. VI. Hides of slaughtered animals found to be sick with anthrax, symptomatic anthrax, glanders, rabies, and sheep pox are subject to destruction. Hides of animals sick with tuberculosis, actinomycosis, botryomycosis are released freely. Hides of animals sick with other contagious diseases are subject to preliminary disinfection at slaughterhouses. Hides of animals slaughtered at slaughterhouses are marked with hot brands or by placing a seal on their neck part. Poultry and game meat. The meat of domestic poultry (chickens, geese, turkeys, ducks, guinea fowl) and feathered game (partridges, hazel grouse, black grouse, pheasants, quails, thrushes, pigeons, woodcocks, wild ducks, etc.) is highly valued due to its good taste, digestibility, and significant content of protein substances. Due to the high content of extractive substances in this meat, it is also an important tonic and flavoring substance.

The chemical composition of poultry meat (in percentage of raw substance) is given in Table 11. Poultry meat contains a large amount of water, nitrogenous and extractive substances, and salts. The best meat in terms of taste qualities is provided by young birds, not older than a year. Usually the color of the meat of young birds is white (with the exception of the muscles of the lower extremities, which in chickens are darker than the other muscles); with age, in some of them it becomes pale pink, in others it remains white. Thus, for example, in turkeys and chickens the meat is white, in geese and ducks it is pale pink and pinkish-red. According to studies by Pennington, there are certain differences in the chemical composition between white and pink-red meat (Table 12). Table 12. Constituents | White meat | Pink-red meat (in %) | Water: 73.30-75.73 | 71.75-75.94 | Nitrogenous substances: 21.84-23.50 | 19.77-23.19 | Extractive substances: 1.01-1.10 | 0.64-0.83 | Fat: 0.17-0.98 | 1.38-2.99 | Ash: 1.17-1.33 | 1.18-1.49. As can be seen from the table, the difference consists mainly in the fact that white meat, compared to pink-red meat, is significantly poorer in fat and richer in extractive substances. Chicken fat is characterized by the following constants (according to Monvoisin): melting point - 33-40°; solidification point - 17-27°; iodine number - 57-70°; acidity - 0.5-0.7°. Compared to beef and mutton fat, chicken fat has a lower melting point and a higher iodine number.

Slaughter of poultry is carried out either by twisting the neck or by cutting the cervical blood vessels (externally or through the mouth using a knife with a very thin blade). To free the bird's intestines from contents, it is stopped being fed 24 hours before slaughter or given a laxative-a teaspoon of Glauber's salt. Slaughtered poultry is prepared in gutted and undressed forms. According to a number of researchers, undressed poultry with the gastrointestinal tract cleared of contents keeps better than gutted poultry. After the specified preparation, the poultry either enters the market in a fresh-killed state or is subjected to cooling and freezing; the cooling temperature ranges from -1° to +4°. For longer storage, the best temperature is considered to be from -1° to 0°. The duration of storage at the specified temperature can reach 2-3 weeks. Freezing is carried out either at -6°, which takes about 8 days, or at -11°, -12° (about 3 days). At present, it is preferred to use rapid freezing within 48 hours at a temperature from -14° to -18°. Storage of poultry is carried out in chambers with a temperature of -9° and a humidity of about 85%. It is usually stored in packaging (crates). Under these conditions, the storage of poultry can last from 6 to 9 months. Transportation of poultry in both frozen and chilled states is carried out in specially equipped isothermal cars. Inspection of poultry stored in the warehouse must be carried out regularly every month. Ducks and geese, due to the property of their fat to undergo rapid spoilage, keep worse than other birds. Therefore, their storage should not exceed 2.5-3 months.

Game. Usually the conditions of slaughter and delivery to cold storage of various game are extremely unfavorable for prolonged storage even at low temperatures; wild animals are killed after a more or less prolonged pursuit, and the wound causing death can be anywhere on the body. Game usually arrives at the warehouse not immediately, but several days after it was killed and after a more or less lengthy transportation, often in unfavorable conditions that contribute to spoilage and infection of the product. To delay the development of microorganisms, it is necessary to store game at the lowest possible temperature. Feathered game keeps better unplucked and undressed. It is stored in a frozen state at a temperature of about -9°.