Laundry

LAUNDRY, a facility where the washing and processing of dirty linen is carried out for the purpose of cleaning it, and the finishing of cleaned linen for further use. All processes of linen processing are divided into 3 main groups: 1) preparation of linen, facilitating the removal of contaminants from it; 2) removal of contaminants; 3) finishing of already cleaned linen. The nature and degree of contamination and the quality of the fabric from which the linen is made require different processing, which is why the first group of operations deserves special attention from a production point of view. Since the worker comes into direct contact with dirty linen, which may be infected or infested with insects, when preparing linen for washing, this group of operations is also very important from a sanitary point of view. The first group—preparation of linen—includes the following operations: receiving dirty linen, its sorting and classification, marking the linen, soaking, and boiling. Receiving of linen is carried out by weight (weighing) or by piece (counting). Sorting and classification of linen is done a) into colored and white, b) by quality (sturdy, torn, thin, coarse), c) by degree of contamination, and d) into that which is subject to boiling and that which is not. If the linen is from different individuals or institutions, its marking is required. Sorted linen is folded into bundles with the designation of the linen categories (labels). Soaking is a mandatory preparatory operation. Linen contaminated with sweat, blood, pus, and feces (especially hospital linen) contains dried protein substances in the pores and threads of its fabric. Proteins in cold water swell, soften, and partially dissolve, while in hot water they coagulate and are firmly held in the fabric (stains). Coagulation of proteins occurs at a temperature of about 60–70°. In addition to the dissolution and softening of protein substances during soaking, the swelling of fabric fibers and the softening of all contaminants occur, which contributes to easier and faster cleaning of the linen. The duration of soaking (in water at room temperature) is about 12 hours (from 8 to 20 hours depending on the contamination of the linen); it is rational, in order to reduce working time, to soak from the evening, on the eve of the washing day. Spraying the linen with kerosene and soaking with the addition of solutions that impart an alkaline reaction to the water—crystalline soda (which, however, gives the linen a yellow tint), borax, sodium borate, or a 26% solution of NH₃—accelerates and facilitates washing even more. Alkalis act by saponifying the fatty parts of the contaminants, which, upon saponification, dissolve more easily in water. Boiling—boiling of linen in boiling water (see Boilers)—is applied to heavily soiled, coarse linen; it acts as a disinfectant and kills insects. To enhance boiling, solutions of soda and borax are added. The duration of boiling, including loading and unloading, is up to 2.5–3 hours (on average 1 hour for hand washing, 0.5 hours for mechanical). Colored linen fades from boiling. After boiling, before washing, the linen is rinsed in clean water to remove dirty water and suspended particles of contaminants from the surface and from its pores. Removal of contaminants consists of two moments—washing and rinsing—and is achieved simultaneously by mechanical rubbing and chemical binding of the mechanically separated contaminants. In hand washing, rubbing is performed by rubbing the linen against each other in water or with a stiff brush (which acts destructively on the fabric fibers); it is better to rub against sheets of corrugated zinc in a wooden frame. In mechanical washing, the linen, rolling in the drum of the washing machine, rubs slightly against the inner surface of the drum, is lifted out of the soapy water and falls back into it, being irrigated by this water from above; the destruction of fibers is significantly less. The chemical effect depends mainly on soap, which dissolves in hot water and, decomposing, forms an insoluble acidic fatty acid salt and a basic fatty acid salt dissolved in the water; the softened and separated contaminants of the linen are enveloped by the latter salt and remain in the soapy water in the form of flakes. Soap consumption in mechanical washing is less than in hand washing. The duration of washing in double-drum type machines in 3 changes of water with bleaching is 1.5 hours, including loading and unloading; in hand washing, 1 laundress washes, rinses, and blues about 3.5 kg of linen in 1 hour. In mechanical washing, about 10% of the linen is washed by hand (certain types of linen). Rinsing is performed in clean warm water, and then in cold water to wash off the flakes—rinsing from soapy water containing insoluble acidic fatty acid salt, the presence of which is harmful for further processing of the linen. The duration of rinsing is 10–12 minutes; bleaching, acidification, rinsing, and bluing take 0.5 hours with mechanical rinsing, including loading and unloading. The finishing of cleaned linen consists of bleaching, bluing, wringing, drying, mangling, and ironing (and for some linen, starching), sorting, mending, packing, storage, and issuance of the linen. Bleaching is used to eliminate the unpleasant yellow tint in the linen. Bleaching reagents are added to the water at the end of washing or during rinsing. After bleaching is finished, the linen is neutralized and thoroughly rinsed. Bluing is used to eliminate the slight yellowness that remains even after bleaching. Wringing is performed either by hand—by twisting wet linen into ropes—or mechanically—by passing the linen between rollers (or by centrifuging). The duration of centrifuging is 25 minutes, including loading and unloading. Normal wringing of linen should be considered when no more than 30% of the weight of dry linen remains in the linen as water. Drying of wrung linen is performed: a) in the air or in special covered premises (attics, sheds) with good ventilation and b) in special drying cabinets with heated air or in apparatuses. Drying in drying cabinets is performed at a temperature of 50 to 60°, as a higher temperature affects the strength of the linen. The duration of drying is from 0.5–1 hour to 2 hours. "Straight" linen (sheets, pillowcases, towels, handkerchiefs, and the like) goes from the centrifuge to calender machines (about 40% of the linen), where it is simultaneously dried and ironed. Mangling and ironing of linen are used to give the linen softness and smoothness. Mangling is performed on heavy mechanical mangles; ironing of linen is done with irons by hand or with ironing machines; straight linen is dried, mangled, and ironed simultaneously on calenders. Ironing linen with an iron also has sanitary significance (destruction of insects and nits). Clean linen that has undergone the specified procedures is sorted, classified; that requiring minor mending is mended, checked, packed, and issued. Laundries are divided: a) by design—into stationary and mobile laundries; b) by equipment—into mechanized laundries and those with hand washing; c) by the categories of the population served—into laundries for self-service of the population of their own house, block, and settlement [self-service laundries (Figures 1 and 2)], for general service of the population [communal laundries (Figure 3), industrial], for servicing individual institutions and special groups of the population (e.g., medical-sanitary institutions, children's homes, etc.), as well as for processing rags, cleaning cloths, etc. (industrial laundries). Hand laundries are inexpensive in terms of design and equipment, accessible for construction from local materials, but their operation is more expensive, the labor is tiring, and it takes

much time. Mechanized laundries save time, labor, and health, do not damage linen, are cheaper to operate, and washing of linen occurs at a higher temperature, but they are more complex in design, and factory-made equipment requires experienced, qualified workers. All laundries must meet the following sanitary requirements: a) be accessible to the served laundry district or institution; g) correspond to the amount of linen subject to washing; h) be in strict coordination with the production process of washing; i) be a "throughput system," i.e., arranged so that the linen moves from one operation to another in strict sequence and so that the possibility of contact between dirty linen and clean linen is excluded (separation into clean

Figure 2. Detail of the cabin: 1-washing machine; 2-centrifuge; 3-boiler; 4-cart; 5-washing trough; 6-table.

Fig. 3. Mechanical communal laundry: 1-issuing; 2-office; 3-receiving and sorting; 4-5 disinfection department; 6-ventilation chamber; 7-soaking; 8-outer clothing of workers; 9-boilers; 10-washing hall; 11-soap; 12-soda; 13-manual washing tub; 14-rinsing machine; 15-washing machines; 16-table; 17-centrifuge; 18-engine room; 19-steam engine; 20-electric motor; 21-transmission shaft; 22-hot water tank; 23-boiler room; 24-lift; 25-finished laundry; 26-stove for irons; 27-manual ironing; 28-watchman; 29-storeroom; 30-housekeeper's apartment; 31-machine for starching laundry; 32-hollander; 33-ironing room; 34-mangle; 35-drying cabinet; 36-drying room. The laundry must: a) provide the possibility of obtaining completely clean, non-infected, insect-free laundry; b) give workers the opportunity to wash laundry under the most favorable conditions and without harm to health; c) be safe regarding the spread of infections; d) allow for easy, convenient, and quick cleaning; e) not allow the pollution of water sources (open and groundwater), soil, and the surrounding area by discharged water; f) be located in a place and at a distance that allows for convenient use by the population and separate dirty and clean sections. The calculation of the amount of dirty laundry subject to washing is made on the basis of the following data: a) change of undergarments on average 4 times a month, bed linen-2 times a month; b) amount of laundry per 1 change on average 2-5 kg per person; per month 6-8 kg, in dormitories 3-4 kg, in homes for the elderly and disabled 4-5 kg, in orphanages and school dormitories 5-6 kg, in hotels 2-5 kg, per month per 1 bed 12-30 kg, in canteens 2-5 kg, per 100 meals 15-20 kg, in places of detention 3-4 kg, in medical and sanitary institutions the amount of dirty laundry subject to washing varies depending on the purpose of the institution: from 16 to 48 kg per 1 bed per month [maternity-48 kg, surgical-48 kg, children's (for children 1-3 years old)-48 kg, children's department at maternity hospitals-32 kg, infectious-32 kg, psychiatric-32 kg, general at somatic departments-16 kg]; c) 30-50% of all laundry, depending on the degree of soiling, is subject to boiling; d) 5-10% of washed laundry requires mending. Depending on the occupation of the population, living, economic, and climatic conditions, these average data may fluctuate significantly and are subject to preliminary experimental verification. Laundry arriving at the laundry facility can be divided in sanitary terms into: a) known to be infected or infested with lice; b) known to be non-infected or disinfected. Laundry of the first category is usually subjected to preliminary soaking in disinfectant solutions or delousing on-site (hospital, night shelter, etc.) with subsequent mandatory boiling in the laundry. Chamber disinfection is required only for plague, anthrax, and glanders. Laundry of the second category goes directly to washing, and only heavily worn and soiled laundry is subjected to boiling. According to the laundry processing procedures, the premises of the laundry are divided into two main parts: dirty and clean; the dirty part, in turn, can be divided into infectious and non-infectious departments. Infected, lice-infested laundry enters the infectious department, where it is sorted, soaked, and boiled, after which the laundry enters the general washing area; the boilers are located in the wall separating the soaking room from the washing room. Non-infected laundry enters the non-infectious department, where, after sorting and classification, it is soaked and transferred to the general washing area. Thus, in both cases, the laundry enters the washing area decontaminated. Laundry enters the clean part of the laundry facility only in a clean state: after washing, rinsing, and wringing. The dirty and clean departments must be isolated from each other and have independent exits; the dirty part must have sanitary locks. For receiving and issuing laundry, there must be special entrances and exits, and the premises themselves must be separated from other production areas. Depending on the capacity of the laundry, the number and size of individual rooms vary. A mechanized, fully equipped communal or industrial public laundry with large capacity (2,000 kg of laundry per working day or more) has the following rooms: A. Main: 1) entrance for those bringing dirty laundry; 2) dirty laundry receiving room with waiting area; 3) room for storing dirty laundry; 4) dirty laundry sorting room; 5) washing room, consisting of rooms for soaking vats, boilers, washing machines, rinsing, centrifuges; 6) drying room; 7) ironing room, consisting of rooms for hollanders, mangles, manual ironing; 8) clean laundry sorting and mending room; 9) room for storing clean laundry; 10) room for issuing clean laundry; 11) exit (with clean laundry). B. Auxiliary: 1) office with cash desk; 2) entrance for workers; 3) sanitary lock with individual lockers for workers and showers; 4) rooms for workers' rest and meals with a tea-water boiler; 5) toilets; 6) rooms for the local committee; 7) boiler room; 8) engine room; 9) mechanical workshop; 10) storeroom for materials; 11) supply and exhaust ventilation chambers; 12) rooms for cold and hot water tanks; 13) shed for transport (garage) or 14) stables; 15) rooms for stablemen, drivers; 16) watchman's room. The determination of the areas of individual laundry rooms is made taking into account the area occupied by the equipment and its throughput capacity, and the arrangement of machines must correspond to the best mechanization of the washing process, the forward movement of the laundry, and the requirements of safety engineering. The dirty laundry receiving room and sorting room are calculated at no less than 4.7 m² of floor area per 100 kg of laundry during a working day. For soaking

Figure 4. Washing machine and laundry cart.

vats, a special area is allocated. The boiling-washing-rinsing department requires 6 m² of area for every 100 kg of laundry processed in an 8-hour working day, and centrifuges require 2.5 m² (a total of 7.5-8.5 m²). For manual washing, at least 4.5 m² is required per 1 washerwoman. The dimensions of the washing area per unit weight of laundry are inversely proportional to the amount of washed laundry. In self-service laundries, washing rooms are arranged in the type of individual cabins measuring 4.5x4.6 m each, separated from each other by lattice partitions. In laundries with manual washing, the size and equipment are determined based on the labor productivity of the washerwoman. With the mechanization of washing processes, the throughput of the laundry increases significantly (up to 50 families per 1 cabin). The drying and ironing rooms are also calculated depending on the equipment. The clean laundry sorting and mending room requires at least 6.0-7.5 m² of area per 100 kg of laundry washed during a working day. The height of the laundry premises where the work process is carried out must be at least 3.5-4 m, and in the others at least 3 m. In house laundry rooms, the height of all rooms can be 2.8 m. The necessary amount of equipment in the laundry is established depending on the type of laundry, its size, throughput capacity, and the nature of the equipment. Individual equipment: 1) soaking vats-fixed and mobile; 100 kg of laundry per day requires 0.75 m³ of useful capacity of the vats. 2) Boilers (see). For 100 kg of laundry per day, 0.85 m³ of useful capacity of the boiler is required. 3) Washing machines-cam-type, preferably of the double-drum type (Fig. 4). The laundry should occupy no more than 2/3 of the volume of the inner drum. For manual washing

Figure 5. Continuously operating chain drying cabinet.

tubs with two compartments are used: one for washing, the other for placing the washed laundry on its removable grate and for rinsing and bluing. 4) Rinsing machines are installed, each for a specific group of serviced washing machines, and their capacity is determined by the productivity of this group. For 100 kg of laundry, 1.5 m³ of useful machine capacity is required. For manual rinsing, for every 8 manual washing tubs, there is 1 rinsing vat. 5) Wringing machines-rollers or centrifuges. During centrifugation, the laundry is strongly pressed against the wall of the basket, which is why the edges of the holes in the walls are of essential importance for its preservation. 6) Drying apparatus-drying cabinets (Figs. 5 and 6), copper tinned drums (for tulle fabrics), and apparatus for special drying of various shapes (for stockings). 7) Mangles-rollers and

Figure 6. Stove for irons with a drying cabinet.

table-type ironers. Medium-sized rollers: one per 6 laundry workers; medium-sized table chest ironers: one per 10 laundry workers; with machine drive - 1 ironer per 100 kg of laundry processed on the ironers per hour. 8) Ironing devices (irons and ironing machines) are distinguished by the greatest variety and multiplicity of types. Among irons, the most convenient are those heated by electric current. When heating irons with coal, damage to the laundry is possible from falling particles of coal and ash and flying sparks. With gas irons, air contamination is observed due to gas leakage and its combustion products. In mass production, ironing machines heated by gasoline, gas, or steam are used. For the purpose of simultaneous ironing and drying of laundry, multi-chest steam ironing machines (damage to laundry from stretching) and drum ironers (Fig. 7) are used. In view of the significant amount of water vapor when ironing only centrifuged, undried laundry, intensive ventilation of the ironing rooms or extraction of moist air directly at the ironers is required. When ironing with irons, 1.25 m of table length is required for each ironer. Tanks for soap and soda solution are calculated by capacity according to the required total quantity of each solution for the working day, prepared 2-3 times

Figure 7. Ironer with exhauster.

during the day. Consumption per 100 kg of laundry: dry soap 2.5 kg, dry soda 1.25 kg. For every 3-4 washing machines, 1 tank for soap and soda is needed; for every 3-4 boiling vats, 1 tank for soda. For the transport of laundry, wooden movable cages, low-sided carts, and wicker baskets on carts are used. When constructing the walls, floors, and ceilings of a laundry, the possibility of maintaining cleanliness and protection from dampness and contamination must be provided for. Their finish must allow for quick and easy cleaning and must not have parts that contribute to the contamination of the premises and the accumulation of dirt and dust. The ceiling and walls must be smooth; walls to a height of at least 0.75 m (and completely in the sorting room) must allow for washing; floors must be without potholes, cracks, and fissures, on one level, without ledges between separate rooms. In the rooms of the dirty section and with wet processes, the floors must be impermeable to water, with a slope and openings for water drainage; gratings and a drainage trap are installed in the openings. Lighting of the laundry must be direct natural light, uniform, without dark corners, with large, unshaded windows. The lower edge of the window must be no lower than 1 m from the floor. Window sills must be sloped downwards with drainage for condensation water. Machines and devices must be well-lit and must not cast shadows on work areas. The light coefficient must be no less than ¹/₈. Heating in the laundry rooms must be calculated so that the air temperature in hot production rooms is 22° during work (no less than 20°) and 20° in the others (no less than 18°), taking into account the heat balance. Since the processes of boiling, washing, and ironing produce significant heat emission into the air of the rooms, the calculation of the heating system in these rooms (the most suitable is a low-pressure steam system or medium-pressure at 1-1.5 atmospheres) is made for an internal temperature of 10°, which is sufficient to maintain the required temperature on working days and a minimum during non-working hours. Heating devices must have smooth surfaces. Ventilation in production rooms is supply-and-exhaust, aimed at lowering air humidity and temperature; in other rooms, it follows standard hygienic requirements, i.e., maintaining air cleanliness. In rooms where soaking, boiling, washing, rinsing, wringing, drying, and ironing are performed, the volume of ventilation depends on the amount of water vapor and heat released into the air of the rooms (see Ventilation). In other rooms, the air exchange rate is: laundry delivery-3, sorting and marking of dirty laundry-3, storage of dirty laundry-4, storage of clean laundry-1. Water consumption for processing 100 kg of laundry: hot (65°) for manual processing about 850 l, machine-1,400 l; cold (5°) for manual processing-1,700 l, machine-2,800 l. The amount of water may vary depending on the degree of laundry contamination, the design and selection of machines, and the experience of those working in the laundry. With high water hardness, softening installations are used, which provide significant soap savings. For laundry wastewater, special grease traps are installed, and for large laundries, settling-cooling wells are also installed, which also retain lighter suspended (grease) substances. The admixture of soap waters to household wastewater is usually allowed in an amount not exceeding 25%. With a larger amount, precipitation of soap waters with a solution of hydrate of lime is used. When choosing a location for a laundry, one should consider: 1) the convenience of communication with the laundry for the population using it (if special receiving points are not set up in residential quarters); 2) unimpeded and uninterrupted receipt of water in sufficient quantity and of proper quality (lowest possible hardness, absence of iron salts); 3) the possibility of discharging laundry water without harmful influence (contamination) on water sources, on the surrounding area (contamination and waterlogging of the soil), on the sewage system; 4) the possibility of installing treatment facilities for laundry wastewater if necessary. For the purpose of the most rational use of heat management and for more correct service of the working population, it is advisable to combine large-type laundries with bathhouses, creating a kind of complex (bath-laundry complexes). For the convenience of service, a network of laundries of different types should be planned. The enormous growth of socialist construction, the emergence of new construction sites and workers' settlements, and the development of collective farms and state farms require the widespread construction of laundries, and along with large mechanized laundries, simplified-type laundries are organized for the first period. These laundries have the purpose of providing the possibility of washing laundry in the most accessible way under the given conditions and with the most economical consumption of fuel, funds, etc. The organization of the simplest laundries makes it possible to improve the sanitary-hygienic conditions of residential premises and prevent their damage from dampness. Simplified-type laundries are set up at new construction sites (order of the Supreme Council of the National Economy of 17/XI 1931), in workers' settlements, at workers' and student dormitories, at residential buildings (housing cooperatives), etc. Along with this, they should find widespread distribution in state farms, collective farms, and Machine-Tractor Stations. Laundries of the simplest type can be both with personal labor (self-service) and with hired labor. In these laundries, washing and drying of laundry are performed, and where the opportunity arises, ironing as well; as an exception, only washing may be allowed. In collective farms, simplified-type laundries are organized in huts, barns, storerooms, and other premises located in the funds of village councils, district executive committees, state farms, collective farms, and Machine-Tractor Stations that can be used for these purposes. Assuming 1,000 people of population and 6 kg of laundry per month per person, with 24 working days in the laundry, 7 tubs are required. Area of the premises: in the washroom 4 m² per 1 tub, in the drying room 1.5-2 m², and in the ironing room 3 m² per 1 laundry worker. The construction, operation, and maintenance of laundries are regulated by special orders: resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of 14/V 1932 'On measures to improve the sanitary condition of cities and new construction sites' ('Na fr. zdr.', off. dept., 1932, No. 16-17; also in 'Byul. NKKh', 1932, No. 4); 'Sanitary rules for the construction, operation, and maintenance of laundries', People's Commissariat of Health, Construction Sector of Gosplan and People's Commissariat of Labor of the RSFSR of 4/VI 1930 ('Na fr. zdr.', off. dept., No. 20, 1930); 'On the maximum deployment of laundries in houses included in the housing cooperative system', People's Commissariat of Health and Central Housing Union of 14/I 1932 ('Na fr. zdr.', off. dept., 1932, No. 4); 'On serving workers with bathhouses and laundries', People's Commissariat of Health and People's Commissariat of Communal Economy of 8/I 1932 ('Na fr. zdr.', off. dept., 1932, No. 3); 'On measures to streamline the everyday service of the working population with bathhouses and laundries', People's Commissariat of Communal Economy of 4/IV 1932 ('Byul. NKKh', off. dept., 1932, No. 11); 'Minimum sanitary-technical service for the population of workers' settlements', People's Commissariat of Communal Economy and People's Commissariat of Health of 9/IV 1932 ('Na fr. zdr.', off. dept., 1932, No. 12); 'On providing bath-laundry enterprises with permanent sanitary supervision', People's Commissariat of Health of 14/I 1932 ('Na fr. zdr.', off. dept., No. 4, 1932); 'On the conduct by bodies of communal economy and health care of an inspection of the workload of bath-laundry installations and the development of measures for their expansion and maximum load' ('Na fr. Zdr.', Off. Dept., 1932, No. 3).

E. Bragiy. Occupational hazards of the laundry business. The mechanization of almost all basic processes for washing and ironing laundry fundamentally changes the general character of the laundry business, which, from a primitively organized production with a predominance of manual labor, is turning into one of the types of industrial production with a fairly significant division of labor and a significant number of workers. The successes of the cultural revolution and the widespread involvement of women in production necessitate the broad expansion of this branch of production in the USSR. The main harmful aspects of the work of female laborers in mechanized laundries are: a) high temperature and high air humidity, b) constant contact with moisture, c) danger of infection, d) forced standing position of the body, e) strain on individual muscle groups and pressure on individual parts of the body. The impact of unfavorable meteorological conditions—high temperature and high humidity—on the organism of the workers occurs in almost all departments of a mechanized laundry and covers almost all detailed professions, with the exception of laundry receivers and sorters. In the washroom, where the main "hot" and "wet" work is concentrated, the temperature, according to data from a survey of the former People's Laundry in Moscow (mechanized), fluctuates between 23.2° and 26.8° with a relative humidity of 82-96.8% and an outside air temperature of +4-6°. In the summer, the temperature in this room reaches 28.4°. This entails a disruption of the thermoregulation of the workers, since perspiration in these conditions disappears almost completely, while heat dissipation by conduction, due to the lack of air movement, is also reduced. Fairly intense physical exertion during work among certain groups of workers also creates conditions of increased heat production. As a result, phenomena of heat accumulation and overheating of the organism occur: 3 hours after the start of work, the axillary temperature of workers in this category (washers, rinse workers, wringer workers) rises by 1-1.8°, reaching 37.8°. The high temperature of the premises, on the one hand, and the sharp temperature fluctuations to which many workers are subjected, on the other, can serve as a cause for the spread of colds among laundresses. These types of illnesses, according to outpatient data from the mechanized former People's Laundry, are in second place (49 per 100 workers). Contact with hot water, less often with cold, also occurs in the majority of professions in the mechanized laundry business. Under the influence of this factor, the physiological functions of the skin are disrupted; the latter becomes macerated. Chemical reagents (alkali, "Javel water"), used to accelerate the washing process and to give whiteness to the laundry, aggravate the effect of hot water on the skin, the resistance of which to harmful substances is lowered as a result. In connection with this, skin diseases are almost occupational diseases of laundry workers, occupying first place according to outpatient data from the former People's Laundry in Moscow (53 per 100 workers). Among skin diseases, abscesses, phlegmons, and eczemas are the most common. A characteristic disease among laundresses is a change in the nails, named by Oppenheim onycholysis partialis (Fig. 8) (see Nail). Among the sanitary factors associated with the labor process itself and characteristic of almost all basic professions, one of the most important places is occupied by the constant forced standing position during work and the various disorders and diseases associated with it.

Figure 9.

This factor acquires specific significance in laundries because almost exclusively women work here. This includes disorders of the female reproductive sphere (ante- and retroflexio uteri, metritis, etc.), discovered by A. Letavet and Z. Smelyansky in 1924 in a fairly significant number of workers in mechanized laundries. It is necessary, however, to point out that the majority of workers in mechanized laundries began industrial work at an early age in artisanal manual laundries, where the main hazards were expressed particularly sharply; therefore, it seems extremely difficult to attribute this type of disease solely to the hazards of mechanized laundries. Also worthy of attention are the phenomena of hand deformation observed among ironers, caused by uniformly repeated manipulations during ironing that require great strain. The following aspects of professional activity play a special role in the origin and development of this deformation: the pressure of the iron handle on the palmar surface, the bending of the wrist in the radiocarpal joint, and the deviation of the fingers (nail phalanges) in the ulnar direction. According to survey data of Moscow laundresses, in the majority of ironers (about 70%), one or another phenomenon of deformation was discovered: thickening of the phalangeal joints with limitation of their mobility, apparently caused by prolonged trauma to the articular surfaces when pressing on the iron handle (Fig. 9), and deviation of the nail phalanges in the ulnar direction (Fig. 10). In artisanal laundries, where all labor processes are performed manually, where all laundry processing is carried out by two detailed professions (washers and ironers), occupational hazards are extremely sharply expressed due to general unfavorable sanitary factors (insufficient cubic capacity, lighting, combining the laundry with living quarters, etc.). Due to the fact that both washing and ironing are performed in the same room, the occupational hazards associated with the production environment are common to both. The most important factors are unfavorable meteorological conditions: temperatures up to 40° and higher, high humidity, and physical exertion during work.

Figure 10.

Such a combination of unfavorable meteorological conditions and physical exertion causes significantly sharper disturbances in thermoregulation than is the case, as indicated above, in mechanized laundries. If one adds to this that ironing, due to the absence of any mechanical devices, requires greater physical exertion than in mechanized laundries, then the sharp difference in the sanitary conditions of labor that exists in manual and mechanized laundries becomes completely obvious. From this it also follows that among the measures to improve labor conditions in laundries, the maximum degree of mechanization of production processes occupies the first place. Extremely important is the correct organization of labor. The fight against high temperature and high humidity should be directed at the rational design of production equipment (washing drums, etc.) and a rational supply-and-exhaust ventilation system.

Z. Smelyansky.