Food Products

FOOD PRODUCTS, or food substances, represent the numerous objects that humans consume as food. In the overwhelming majority of cases, they are composed of several so-called nutrients; the latter include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts, water, and also vitamins. These general names essentially combine various compounds that, however, have certain common physical, chemical, and physiological properties characteristic of them. For example, carbohydrates include bodies that are very similar in chemical composition, such as starch and cellulose, while their nutritional value is sharply different: cellulose is almost not assimilated by humans, while starch is assimilated by almost 100%. Proteins such as milk albumin, casein, meat proteins, and some others are complete proteins, while other proteins are incomplete; furthermore, plant proteins are generally assimilated by humans to a lesser extent than animal proteins; it is also known that the physiological properties of various vitamins are very different, etc. Food products for the most part represent natural combinations of nutrients, and in the minority, they consist of any one (predominantly) nutrient. The composition and properties of food products are determined not only by the aforementioned nutrients contained within them but also by other compounds which, in diverse qualitative and quantitative combinations, characterize various food products; thus, food products may contain organic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, tannins, enzymes, sterols, alkaloids, essential oils, coloring agents, and other compounds. Depending on their origin, food products of animal and plant origin are distinguished. Depending on their purpose, food products can be subdivided into food products proper, flavoring substances, and beverages. The former serve the purposes of satiation and replenishing the material losses of the human organism resulting from its vital activity. The latter, consumed in relatively very small quantities, cannot serve as the main material for replenishing the energy expenditures of the organism; by causing pleasant sensations through the nervous system, they give food greater palatability, thereby increasing its beneficial effect. Beverages, not counting alcoholic beverages, serve primarily to quench thirst. The aforementioned division of food products, both by origin and by purpose, is of course schematic: a number of food products can be placed in an intermediate position, for example, chocolate, which simultaneously possesses both the valuable properties of a flavoring substance and a significant energy reserve due to its fat and sugar content; milk is one of the basic food products and possesses the most valuable nutritional properties; but at the same time, due to its significant water content (87-88%), milk is capable of quenching thirst. Depending on their origin and the raw materials from which they are made, food products are generally divided into the following groups: meat products (see Meat), fish products (see Fish), dairy products (see Milk), eggs of domestic birds—chickens, ducks, geese, fat products (see Fats, Margarine, Butter), grain products (see Flour, Bread), fruits (see), vegetables (see), mushrooms (see), sweet substances—cane and beet sugar (sucrose), honey, molasses, starch syrup or starch sugar (glucose), beverages, and flavoring substances (see Table salt, Spices). Also related to food products are so-called nutritional preparations—unusual food substances used for various diseases with a specific therapeutic purpose or for the purpose of replacing ordinary food products when the latter cannot be perceived by a diseased organism (nutritive enemas, concentrated food, etc.). These peculiar food products must, by their purpose, provide the organism in a very well-assimilable form and in a concentrated state with those nutrients that are considered useful for a given disease, or they represent food products with food components removed that could harm the organism. They are intended not for the nutrition of the entire mass of the population, but only for people in a special state, for example, the sick, convalescents, the weak, pregnant women, etc. According to chemical composition and purpose, protein, carbohydrate, fat, and mixed nutritional preparations are distinguished. The first include, for example, meat protein (Witte, Koch, Liebig peptones, etc.; somatose, etc.), meat powder (tropon, soson, etc.), plant protein (aleuronat, mutase, roborat, etc.), milk protein (eukasin, plasmon, nutrose, sanatogen, etc.), egg protein (Heyden's nutritional substances, protogen), gluton (gelatin converted by the action of acids and high temperature into a powder easily soluble in water). Carbohydrate preparations include, for example, fine types of flour that are assimilated more easily than ordinary varieties, made from both cereals and legumes (oat, rice, barley, lentil, arrowroot, etc.) and used primarily in the form of easily digestible soups; dextrinized types of flour, usually used in infancy, when the saccharifying action of saliva is very weak (Nestle, Kufeke, Mellin flour, and many others); malt extracts—syrupy extracts from malted barley with a content of approximately 40-50% sugar (predominantly maltose), about 10% starch solution and dextrin, and 5-6% proteins; fruit juices (e.g., grape). Relatively very few fat preparations have been proposed; they primarily aimed to attempt to replace cod liver oil with tastier preparations (effervescent cod liver oil, Scott's emulsion, fucol, sadol, etc.), however, these attempts were not crowned with success. Lecithin preparations have significantly greater distribution; they are prepared from egg yolk and contain phosphorus and fats. These preparations represent mixtures of lecithin with food substances, for example, with malt (ovomaltine, biomalt), with milk (biocitin), or with protein-rich nutritional preparations, such as phytin (plant seeds). Mixed nutritional preparations, i.e., containing a mixture of several or all nutrients, number a huge quantity of names; in the overwhelming majority, they represent preparations intended for the nutrition of infants and are known under the collective name of baby flour (see). The sanitary-hygienic evaluation of food products is carried out on the basis of accounting for various factors, accidental or constant, characteristic of a given product. These factors can conditionally be divided into two groups, namely: factors characterizing the value of the product primarily from the point of view of the normal physiology of nutrition; these include: the caloric value of the product—total and assimilable (gross and net), the percentage content of basic nutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts, and water), the digestibility of individual nutrients included in the composition of the product (proteins, fats, carbohydrates), the composition and properties of the nutrients themselves, e.g., types of proteins and their completeness (amino acid composition), types of carbohydrates (soluble, insoluble, cellulose content), the composition of the fat of a given product and its melting point, the nature and quantity of lipoids (lecithins, sterols, etc.), mineral composition (content of calcium, phosphorus, iodine, iron, and other elements), and the ratio between the mineral parts of an acidic and alkaline nature; the qualitative and quantitative content of vitamins; to this group of factors should also be attributed the so-called organoleptic properties of food products (taste, smell, color, consistency, and appearance), which evoke attraction and appetite in the consumer toward a normal product and thereby contribute to better assimilation. The other group consists of factors characterizing the product primarily in a sanitary respect, i.e., indicating whether the product meets existing sanitary requirements or not. This includes factors indicating the harmfulness of the product, such as: accidental or malicious impurities in the form of salts of heavy metals (lead, zinc, tin, copper, arsenic, etc.), harmful coloring and flavoring substances, contamination of the product with pathogenic microorganisms (typhoid, paratyphoid, tuberculosis, etc.), the presence of bacterial toxins (botulinus, toxins of bacteria causing meat poisoning, tyrotoxin, etc.), organic poisonous substances (alkaloids, etc.), the admixture of harmful plant products (ergot, smut, poisonous mushrooms, etc.), etc.; factors which, although not poisonous and strongly acting, can lower the value of the product, namely: foreign impurities (not permissible at all or exceeding existing standards), such as clay, sand, small particles of dirt and foreign bodies, etc.; further come factors establishing the freshness or spoilage of the product, i.e., determining signs of decomposition of food products, which appear as a result of long-term or improper storage of food products; signs of decomposition are determined by methods of organoleptic or laboratory research; the latter are based on the qualitative or, more often, quantitative determination of decomposition products characteristic of and standardized for food products.

(determination of acidity in many plant, dairy, and fatty products; of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide in meat and fish products, etc.); factors indicating so-called adulteration, i.e., the fraudulent sale of a product that does not correspond in its composition and properties to the name under which it was sold (see below); for the sanitary evaluation of food products, the determination of the normal constituent parts of a product (their quantity) is finally of great importance, as well as organoleptic properties for the purpose of establishing the grade of the product and its correspondence to the selling price; e.g., determination of the amount of fat and acidity of sour cream or determination of the amount of ash in flour to establish its grade, etc. The listed factors, which provide a sanitary characterization of food products, are indicated as factors that are usually amenable to more or less precise laboratory determination. However, the determination and guarantee of the sanitary well-being of food products as a separate object or an entire batch is not exhausted only by these factors, which are amenable to discovery upon examination of the product itself; cases of an unsanitary state of food products are possible where, due to the imperfection of the existing methodology of analysis or sampling, such cases may remain unnoticed. Therefore, in sanitary-food practice, a very important aid for a comprehensive evaluation of food products is the study of sanitary conditions associated with all stages of the product's movement from the very beginning of its production until it is received by the consumer, and the organization of appropriate preventive measures. A comparative characterization of various groups of food products according to their basic nutritional properties can be briefly expressed as follows: food products containing the least amount of water and, accordingly, a larger amount of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats possess the highest caloric content; rendered animal fats (lard, clarified butter, fish oils, etc.) and vegetable oils, which contain almost no water and other food substances, possess the highest caloric content. Many vegetables (cabbage, cucumbers, etc.), which contain a negligible amount of fats and a great deal of water, possess the lowest caloric content. Regarding digestibility, food products of animal origin generally have significant advantages over food products of plant origin; the main reason for this is cellulose—a carbohydrate characteristic of the plant world—which is almost indigestible by humans; plant food products that contain little or no cellulose are an exception, such as vegetable fats, potato or wheat starch, vegetable milk (almond, etc.), etc. The digestibility of plant food products (all other conditions being equal) can generally be considered inversely proportional to the cellulose content; however, lower digestibility is explained not only by the fact that the cellulose itself is not digested, but also by the following: 1) cellulose, not dissolving and not being digested itself, hinders the free access of digestive juices and enzymes to the proteins and fats contained in plant cells, lowering the percentage of their digestibility; 2) cellulose causes increased peristalsis of the intestines through their mechanical irritation, accelerates the passage of the food mass through the intestinal tract, due to which the duration of digestive action is lowered and, accordingly, the digestibility of all ingested food is lowered. Proteins in food products are not equivalent; this depends on the fact that not all of them contain the amino acids necessary for nutrition; in this sense, complete proteins are proteins that are part of meat and milk; fish meat apparently should be considered somewhat less valuable; proteins of plant products are generally considered incomplete in comparison with the above; among the latter, potato and rice proteins stand highest. The mineral composition of food products in comparison with other constituent parts (food substances) of products has not yet been studied sufficiently fully; the situation is the same with the study of the physiological significance of mineral salts (see Nutrition) for the organism. In general, it should be noted that food products contain the largest amount of potassium (K) and phosphorus (P). Sodium is apparently contained in larger quantities in animal food products (especially in eggs) than in plant ones; therefore, in the latter, the amount of potassium especially prevails over sodium. Calcium (Ca), so necessary for bone growth, is found in relatively large quantities in milk (and in spinach). In meat, eggs, wheat, rye, and buckwheat flour, and in peas, phosphorus (P) is found in greater quantity than in other food products. For the organism, apparently, not only the absolute quantities of individual inorganic elements are of importance, but also the ratio of many of them to each other in the food consumed by humans; the main basis for the latter is obviously the concentration of hydrogen ions in the organism (pH = 7.35), some abnormal shifts of which can obviously occur from absorbed mineral salts if acidic or alkaline elements sharply and constantly prevail in the latter. In view of the fact that the ratio of inorganic elements of most food products does not provide a neutral point, and some even provide a strong deviation from it, then from the point of view of mineral metabolism, a mixed diet is absolutely necessary, as is scientifically justified in other respects. A preponderance of acidic elements is observed in such products as corn, oats, wheat, rice (and flour from them), meat, fish, eggs, and especially egg yolk. A preponderance of alkaline elements is observed in milk, apples, cabbage, peas, potatoes, beets, and especially in beans, raisins, turnips, and plums (according to Sherman). Thus, of animal products, apparently only milk (and it must be assumed dairy products, such as cheeses, cream, etc.) possesses a certain preponderance of alkaline elements. Waste products include inedible, discarded parts of food products, which include, for example, tendons, bones, skin, inedible entrails (intestines, etc.), husks and shells of plant products, etc. The amount of waste must be taken into account in order to be able to determine the true content of food substances in the salable, market weight of food products. In general, many food products of animal origin possess the highest percentage of waste; this is explained by the fact that they include such extremely important and numerous types of fish and meat that contain significant amounts of bones, inedible entrails, etc.; such products as brains, lard, sausages, etc., are practically considered to have no waste. Of the most common plant products, potatoes (25%) and cucumbers (40%) possess a relatively large amount of waste due to the imperfection of the cleaning method, during which a significant part of the edible portion is also removed. Such plant products as flour, bread, pasta, and nut kernels practically have no waste. (For the vitamin content in food products, see Vitamins.) In the general evaluation of food products, one should also take into account their ability to be preserved for a long time and retain their inherent normal nutritional properties and, conversely, their rapid variability and spoilage, which has enormous economic and socio-hygienic significance; from this point of view, it is customary to subdivide food products into perishable and non-perishable products. Physiologically, the most beneficial and valuable food products belong precisely to perishable products; it is enough to point out that they include fresh meat, fish, eggs, milk, vegetables, fruits, berries, butter, and many others. Non-perishable products include, for example, grain, groats, flour, beans, peas, various canned goods, etc., capable of being preserved under normal conditions for a long time (up to 1 year and even longer). To give perishable food products stability in relation to external factors (dampness, temperature, microorganisms and their enzymes, air), fresh food products can be subjected to various types of processing, preservation (see). Canned goods obtained by thickening, drying, smoking, salting, pickling, sterilization, and other methods, in comparison with the initial products from which they are prepared, in the vast majority of cases lose somewhat in their nutritional properties; the cause of the latter can be a decrease in the amount of vitamins under the influence of, for example, high temperature (sterilization), oxidative processes (the influence of atmospheric oxygen on dried, cured products), decomposition and rancidity of fats in dried, cured, and smoked fatty products (fish, sausages), lower digestibility and relative coarseness of dried, cured, smoked, and partly salted products, loss of part of the nutrients in salted and pickled food products through their extraction by brine and vinegar, the transfer of metals (tin, etc.) into the contents of tin cans, etc. Regarding taste properties, many canned goods have advantages over the initial products (e.g., marinades, smoked meats).

The spoilage of food products essentially represents the spoilage of those organic food substances (proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) that are part of their composition; spoilage processes are accompanied by the accumulation in the product of various decomposition products, which are most easily detected by the appearance of specific unpleasant organoleptic changes in the spoiling product; these decomposition products in many cases can be directly or indirectly detected by laboratory research methods. Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates each have more or less characteristic decomposition products; therefore, the predominant content of the specified food substances in a product gives the decomposition a more or less specific character; for example, the spoilage of meat and fish products with a predominant protein content is accompanied by putrefaction—a phenomenon characteristic precisely of proteins; the spoilage of fatty products (cow butter, etc.) is accompanied by phenomena of rancidity and oxidation, characteristic of fats; the decomposition of flour, starch, and sugar is accompanied by the hydrolysis of polysaccharides and disaccharides, characteristic precisely of carbohydrates; in this case, insoluble starch turns into soluble carbohydrates (dextrins, maltose, glucose), and the disaccharide sucrose, turning into inverted sugar (hexoses), acquires the properties of reducing, for example, Fehling's reagent. Mixed products (e.g., cooked sausage made with starch and containing sufficient fat) can, of course, to a noticeable degree possess all the indicated types of decay. However, the decomposition of food products is determined not only by the content of certain food substances but also by other conditions, among which should be included, for example, salt composition (content of saltpeter, NaCl, etc.), content of organic acids (reaction of the medium), accidental contamination by one or another group of microorganisms, storage conditions (access of air, light), etc.; each of these factors can apparently stimulate or suppress the growth of various groups of microorganisms capable of causing various changes in food products. Conditions for the transportation of perishable products—see Perishable cargo. The production, packaging, storage, transport, and finally the distribution of food products, i.e., the entire path of food products up to the consumer, is subjected to control by state and public organizations for the purpose of protecting the health and material interests of the population. In the USSR, actual control is carried out by representatives of various organizations, namely: the People's Commissariat of Health (sanitary organs of the republic), the People's Commissariat of Supply (special inspections, such as: dairy-butter, grain, etc.), administrative departments of the Soviets (militia), the People's Commissariat of Agriculture (veterinary and other organs), between which are divided the functions (control and instructive) characteristic of each of them (see Food legislation). To ensure the supply of high-quality food products to the population in the USSR, corresponding official requirements for food products exist and are being developed, among which the most perfect are the so-called All-Union Standards for food products (see OST), in which specific food products, quality and composition according to existing grades of a given product, rules of packaging and labeling, as well as rules for taking samples and methods of research are indicated. Besides the All-Union Standards, in which sanitary requirements are also taken into account (all All-Union Standards for food products are coordinated with the People's Commissariat of Health), there also exist various sanitary-hygienic requirements of a general and special nature in the form of circulars, orders, and decrees of the People's Commissariat of Health and its Scientific Medical Council, as well as local sanitary organs in the person of the Soviets (see Food legislation). In the political-economic conditions that existed here previously (as well as those existing now outside the borders of the USSR), the main stimulus for supplying the population with products was, in essence, production and trade for the sake of material, monetary profit. In the pursuit of profit, producing and trading individuals often resorted to deception and strove to sell under a certain name a product that was less valuable and did not correspond in composition and properties to the name given to it. Acts of this kind bear the known term "falsification of food products." According to the testimony of Khlopin (1913), "the falsification of food products is developing everywhere colossally fast and is capturing both items of prime necessity and flavor substances." The primary cause of the wide development of sanitary-food legislation and control, both in Russia and abroad, was precisely falsification. In the conditions of the USSR, with the almost universal displacement of private trade and production by state and cooperative organizations, the development of standardization, legislation, and sanitary control over food products is explained first of all by the necessity of official regulation of food products, which would oblige producing and trading organizations to supply the population with products of a certain quality and normal composition, best contributing to the growth and development of the population; of course, our official requirements also keep in mind the possibility of abuse by individual employees of the commodity distribution network. The immediate soil for the development of falsification in the USSR is, in essence, absent in view of the absence of private capital and the transfer of the production and trade of food products into the hands of the state. Falsifications of food products can be of a very different character, starting from a relatively insignificant partial change in the composition of the product being sold and ending with the gross replacement of the entire product with another, less valuable product (see above); in all these cases, the falsifier strives to ensure that the food product being sold, to facilitate deception, resembles in its external properties the one for which it is being sold. Therefore, in the case that the falsified product does not resemble the main product in organoleptic properties, it is subjected to appropriate processing, which, if necessary, comes down to correcting the color (artificial coloring), taste (artificial sweetening with saccharin, dulcin, etc.), smell (artificial flavoring), consistency (saponins, agar-agar, etc.); furthermore, this can also be accompanied by the forgery of the packaging and labeling itself. Examples of color correction can be the frequent coloring of grape wine, which loses its natural color when diluted with water, or millet, which has spoiled and lost its normal yellow color, etc. Examples of sweetening can be the replacement of sugar in ice cream or fruit drinks with saccharin. An example of multiple, combined falsification can be the sale under the name "natural berry syrup" of an artificial product, representing a mixture of successfully selected artificial essences, dyes, and saccharin, diluted with water, with the addition of glycerin to give a thick consistency. An example of the complete replacement of a food product with a less valuable product is the sale of horse meat instead of beef, margarine instead of butter, etc. An example of partial replacement is the sale of cocoa powder with the addition of flour or milk diluted with water; an example of the removal of a valuable component from a product is the sale of skimmed, fat-free milk. Of course, cases of selling a food product of a lower grade as a higher one must also be considered as falsification, e.g., the sale of sour cream or butter of the 2nd grade instead of the 1st, etc. A detailed enumeration of cases of falsification, even by groups, appears difficult, so diverse and numerous are they, especially since with the development of technology in general, methods of falsification also develop and multiply. The development of the private market in capitalist countries and competition lead to an increased growth of falsification in these countries. It is customary to call surrogates of food products those objects consumed by humans as food which, by virtue of the absence, shortage, or high cost of real food products, are intended to serve as their replacement, having a similarity to them to a greater or lesser degree in organoleptic properties and in the content of food substances. Depending on which food product the surrogate serves to replace, one distinguishes surrogates of, for example, bread, meat, milk, etc. The very frequent confusion of the concepts "surrogate" and "falsificate" is deeply erroneous, since the latter is connected with the concealment of the quality and composition of a food product by a false name given to it, while a surrogate represents an open replacement of one food product with another, moreover, often legalized and, from the point of view of nutritional hygiene, sometimes even desirable. The concept of "surrogate" is very conditional, if only because one and the same product may be a generally accepted and desirable product for some peoples, while for others it may serve as a temporary replacement in conditions of a shortage of the main food product, e.g., horse meat is a generally accepted meat product among Tatars and a meat surrogate in most European countries; cow's milk, a main food product, is called a surrogate if it is given to infants instead of mother's milk; corn bread, which is one of the main types of bread goods in the Georgian SSR, is considered surrogate bread in most of our republics, etc.

The conventional nature of this concept also stems from the fact that some surrogates, while being quite rational from the point of view of the scientific foundations of nutrition, can over time become so ingrained in the population's diet that, by force of habit, they will be consumed not as a replacement for other food products, but as such alongside other basic food products; an illustration of this can be, for example, margarine, which is called a surrogate for cow butter; margarine in many European countries now has such wide and constant consumption (even greater than cow butter—Denmark, etc.) that, apparently, in these countries it ceases to be perceived by the population as a surrogate and begins to acquire the significance of an independent and important food product, serving at the same time as a rational form of using relatively high-melting and less tasty beef tallow. Close to the word "surrogate," and often even synonymous, are the terms "unusual" or "little-used" food products. The main difference between the former and the latter should apparently be seen in the fact that

PRODUCTS

unusual food products, which are turned to, just like surrogates, also in the event of a shortage of basic, generally accepted products, due to their peculiarity and lack of similarity to basic food products, are not a replacement, but original and "unusual" products. These terms are also entirely conventional, for a product "unusual" for a given country can over time become so ingrained in the population's diet that, by force of habit, it will be consumed constantly as a basic product; an example of this can be the potato, which, having been brought from America to Europe for the first time in the 16th century, was initially an unusual food product, spread extremely slowly, was accepted by the population in most places reluctantly and with distrust, was planted by almost violent government measures, and over the centuries took root and acquired the widest significance. Surrogates, according to their nutritional value, can be divided into three groups: useful surrogates, the introduction of which into the population's diet can be welcomed from the point of view of the scientific foundations of nutrition (dolphin fat, donkey meat, etc.); surrogates of little use, the consumption of which can only be tolerated as a temporary replacement for missing normal food products (oil cakes, quinoa, foliage containing much fiber; inedible parts of animals rich in connective tissue elements: stomach, intestines, etc.); useless surrogates, which should be considered unacceptable. The consumption of the latter 2 groups of surrogates takes place under conditions of famine in certain countries and, from the point of view of rationalization and the search for new raw material sources of nutrition, of course, is of no interest; in contrast to this, the first group deserves special attention in terms of both significant physiological value and the significant reserves of many of them cultivated by nature. To the number of these latter should be attributed the fats of numerous plant seeds (except for poisonous ones), the fats and meat of wild and domestic animals not used in our conditions (dolphin, seal, shark, camel, and many others), etc. (In our literature, the most complete review of surrogates that have been used and can be used in accordance with the natural resources of the USSR is given by Prof. Ya. Ya. Nikitinsky in the monograph "Surrogates and Unusual Sources of Foodstuffs of Plant and Animal Origin in Russia," Moscow, 1921). Methods of examining food products can be divided according to actual execution into 1) examinations carried out directly at the location of the food product—at places of production, storage, trade, public catering, at transport points, etc.; 2) examinations carried out in equipped chemical and bacteriological laboratories. The former are usually carried out under conditions that exclude the possibility of using relatively complex but accurate analytical methods, and in most cases are limited to evaluating the product with the help of the senses, i.e., determining quality by appearance, color, smell, taste, and consistency; only in rare cases are some simplest methods of laboratory examination used, which are of an orientational nature. This type of control requires special knowledge and experience in the field of sanitary food commodity science; besides

Composition and caloric value of food products. The table is compiled according to a monograph published by the Central Statistical Administration of the USSR, edited by Prof. A. V. Leontovich: "Normal Composition and Nutritional Value of Food Products," Moscow, 1925 (according to N. K. Ignatov). Name of products Chemical composition in % of raw substance nitrogenous substances fats carbohydrates fiber (* lactic acid) water Digestible amounts in % of raw substance nitrogenous substances (proteins, etc.) fats carbohydrates / Percentage of waste

1. Meat and meat products: Mutton fatty. . . . . . Ham. . . . . . Beef fatty. . . . . . Beef medium. . . . . . Beef lean. . . . . . Goose meat. . . . . . Sausages and frankfurters. . . . . . Horse meat. . . . . . Rabbit meat. . . . . . Chicken meat. . . . . . Lung. . . . . . Brains. . . . . . Liver. . . . . . Meat powder. . . . . . Kidneys. . . . . . Beef tallow rendered. . . . . . Pork fat not rendered. . . . . . Pork fat rendered. . . . . . Pork fatty. . . . . . Pork lean. . . . . . Meat juice. . . . . . Salted beef. . . . . . Veal fatty. . . . . . Veal lean. . . . . . Liebig's meat extract. . . . . . Tongue. . . . . .

2. Chicken egg. . . . . .

3. Fish and fish products: Balyk sturgeon. . . . . . Beluga salted. . . . . . Roach fresh. . . . . . Roach dried. . . . . . Red whitefish caviar. . . . . . Black granular caviar. . . . . . Black pressed caviar. . . . . . Crucian carp fresh. . . . . . Carp or sazan lean. . . . . . Chum salmon Amur salted. . . . . . Bream fresh. . . . . . Salmon salted and smoked. . . . . . Lamprey fresh. . . . . . Navaga. . . . . . Perch fresh. . . . . . Sturgeon fresh. . . . . . Roach or dace. . . . . . Herring smoked. . . . . . Herring fresh. . . . . . Herring salted. . . . . . Catfish fresh. . . . . . Sterlet fresh. . . . . . Zander fresh. . . . . . Zander salted-dried. . . . . . Zander salted. . . . . . Cod fresh. . . . . . Cod salted. . . . . . Shemaya salted-smoked. . . . . . Sprats smoked. . . . . . Pike fresh. . . . . .

4. River crayfish fresh

5. Milk and dairy products: Kefir. . . . . . Kumis. . . . . . Cow butter. . . . . . Butter rendered. . . . . . Chukhonskoye butter. . . . . . Human milk. . . . . . Mare's milk. . . . . . Goat's milk. . . . . . Cow's milk condensed without added sugar. . . . . . Same with added sugar. . . . . . Cow's milk whole. . . . . . Sheep's milk. . . . . .

16.36

31.07

21.66

18.38

20.59

20.57

16.6

18.70

21.40

5.53

2.01

28.7

16.54

12.55

42.05

18.70

17.29

41.30

17.72

25.99

37.16

17.63

20.41

17.66

16.18

24.19

14.98

16.18

17.18

17.87

16.39

21.59

16.69

18.43

16.07

16.64

19.46

52.77

26.78

17.15

20.29

28.33

22.73

18.76

16.00

3.39

2.24

1.07

2.56

2.08

1.99

3.81

11.17

10.47

3.39

5.15

21.71

2.55

0.46

21.47

9.76

0.75

19.84

5.10

1.07

15.21

2.47

0.81

9.0

9.30

19.38

2.78

69.50

5.84

0.42

17.27

4.76

0.41

98.15

11.01

68.35

0.26

99.04

14.54

37.34

20.08

6.63

9.55

19.27

4.47

18.88

7.41

0.07

19.86

0.82

16.31

15.93

0.48

1.47

7.05

4.09

11.66

13.29

0.59

0.56

8.52

1.08

8.68

8.21

14.48

0.71

5.59

0.28

3.40

0.72

0.24

0.34

16.21

15.94

0.96

0.46

2.76

1.46

86.57

98.12

86.35

3.82

1.21

4.19

11.49

10.07

3.68

6.18

2.52

1.77

0.60

6.27

5.67

4.14

13.96

51.02

4.94

0.93

3.84

0.97

1.12

1.21

1.11

17.82

0.05

12.11

0.55

14.35

8.93

5.88

14.20

51.19

55.56

58.74

72.52

76.17

51.0

15.51

20.58

17.46

19.56

19.51

15.77

0.98*

0.91*

see Sausage products

1.01

74.27

66.86

72.83

79.89

80.60

71.60

10.99

76.60

1.33

14.84

10.49

0.70

47.10

72.55

89.05

59.23

72.31

78.84

19.87 See Meat extract

1.05

64.56

73.67

12.17 6.93 10.52 1.60 14.20 7.26 4.34 7.05 1.07 1.30 11.24 1.02 12.04 0.66 1.58 1.21 1.29 1.23 5.38 1.58 13.88 0.89 0.96 1.04 18.58 18.60 1.09 13.07 11.43 1.04 36.67 61.85 75.75 19.80 66.05 56.16 37.97 80.82 77.29 63.72 78.70 51.46 71.07 81.35 80.71 77.30 80.50 64.52 73.65 57.84 82.39 76.81 79.21 25.70 53.89 82.18 66.02 43.50 59.89 79.33 1.31 81.22 0.65 88.86 0.4 90.44 1.16 12.04 0.22 1.58 2.07 11.11 0.36 87.36 0.35 90.78 0.79 86.48 1.99 61.46 2.00 26.44 0.72 87.27 0.93 83.57 37.84 16.83 16.77 37.17 17.19 25.21 36.04 17.10 19.80 15.89 15.69 21.77 14.53 15.98 16.66 17.33 15.90 19.43 16.19 16.59 15.59 16.14 18.87 47.49 24.10 16.63 18.26 25.50 22.05 18.20 15.52 3.12 2.06 0.98 2.35 1.91 1.83 3.46 10.27 9.63 3.12 4.47 29.51 17.76 20.33 6.25 1.91 27.26 0.66 7.04 0.78 16.93 0.05 11.50 0.55 13.92 8.66 5.70 13.77 8.70 15.82 15.45 0.46 1.42 6.84 3.97 11.50 12.89 0.57 0.54 3.41 1.05 8.42 7.99 14.04 0.69 5.42 0.27 3.30 0.70 0.23 0.33 15.72 15.46 0.93 0.45 0.44 2.62 1.39 83.97 98.17 82.79 3.63 1.15 3.86 10.91 9.56 3.49 5.87 2.62 1.77 0.60 6.27 5.67 4.44 13.96 51.02 4.94 4.17 2.42 0.46 9.27 0.75 4.84 1.07 2.34 0.81 4.42 2.78 5.55 0.42 4.52 88.33 64.93 94.09 35.47 6.30 4.24 Continued. Name of products Chemical composition in % of raw substance Nitrogenous substances (proteins, etc.) Fats Carbohydrates Fiber (lactic acid) Water Digestible quantities in % of raw substance Percentage of waste Nitrogenous substances (proteins, etc.) Carbohydrates Fats Water Donkey milk 9.83 1.85 6.19 90.12 Milk powder from whole milk 5.33 23.09 30.81 1.73 53.43 The same from skimmed milk 10.88 1.37 42.39 23.14 3.22 3.01 0.40* 3.01 22.62 4.30 4.34 6.23 1.72 0.78* 23.56 30.63 2.64 25.77 31.53 2.37 26.21 29.58 3.39 21.73 30.33 2.67 29.07 24.41 2.06 25.83 31.71 4.52 35.59 12.45 4.22 24.81 7.33 3.54 14.58 0.59 1.16 11.41 2.68 58.79 11.44 15.29 6.51 40.73 20.31 9.58 5.09 67.89 2.85 11.77 5.03 57.80 11.11 16.10 1.72 66.26 2.27 6.38 2.10 69.28 6.51 13.15 1.72 68.25 1.80 12.21 2.35 65.48 4.51 23.23 2.11 58.92 1.78 22.69 1.21 6.28 8.92 1.85 60.69 12.78 8.28 1.49 74.58 0.70 1.03 80.83 10.92 3.76 71.44 1.90 15.48 7.71 61.78 3.70 11.88 0.81 73.79 0.21 11.82 1.36 72.23 0.98 8.83 1.21 71.91 1.44 12.40 1.74 67.77 2.97 7.39 0.69 78.95 0.10 15.81 6.29 63.45 2.26 25.71 1.86 56.79 2.10 9.83 1.91 72.51 0.91 0.17 5.30 6.48 0.76 0.64 0.56 5.41 6.05 4.56 5.55 4.26 4.92 4.68 4.02 1.16 2.38 4.91 1.47 2.91 1.70 3.57 1.90 2.50 3.36 4.89 0.91 1.11 0.96 1.79 2.14 0.78 0.96 1.06 1.84 0.58 2.37 2.68 1.74 6.08 7.55 70.44 67.67 36.40 31.80 36.31 36.42 40.22 34.04 43.06 80.27 80.64 13.27 12.22 13.32 11.28 11.07 12.18 14.78 12.95 10.57 11.98 14.99 13.84 17.18 12.37 9.18 12.64 12.65 13.19 13.06 12.29 9.62 10.96 13.22 1.70 1.30 21.21 21.93 28.31 1.61 11.86 2.72 2.77 21.49 4.21 24.92 22.86 31.00 14.99 29.95 25.42 28.05 23.99 28.81 28.20 23.19 25.05 30.12 34.52 11.83 21.09 6.96 14.14 0.56 8.56 2.28 6.88 5.53 6.71 4.33 8.21 4.27 12.88 1.46 5.10 1.87 9.20 1.26 8.65 2.00 18.26 1.82 17.06 1.03 6.69 1.57 6.21 1.27 0.72 8.19 3.20 10.84 8.55 10.10 0.89 8.86 1.16 6.66 1.05 8.68 1.22 5.91 0.62 11.07 5.35 18.00 1.68 6.88 1.62 6.19 42.39 53.43 3.04 4.30 1.72 2.61 2.37 3.89 2.67 2.06 4.52 4.22 1.77 1.16 55.85 36.66 64.49 54.91 62.94 65.82 61.42 58.93 53.03 50.27 57.65 70.86 72.75 67.87 55.60 71.58 68.62 71.18 66.46 75.00 60.28 63.95 65.20 See Cereal, see Vegetables, see Fruits 8.15 23.79 33.99 23.44 8.70 8.44 7.41 8.52 18.81 7.38 21.06 7.58 6.93 21.41 30.69 0.39 52.69 0.35 1.17 36.48 7.93 0.33 50.72 1.95 40.18 1.79 0.85 60.14 4.00 1.66 38.17 0.62 75.55 0.42 0.64 11.89 9.25 0.53 73.28 1.12 43.63 5.31 2.96 41.01 3.38 0.95 39.27 2.55 75.75 0.55 1.70 9.51 7.43 2.17 71.96 0.54 57.80 0.31 0.88 33.66 5.79 0.46 56.07 0.46 47.66 0.63 1.27 42.41 6.88 0.39 45.18 2.38 50.99 0.22 1.17 31.62 8.91 2.02 49.46 0.73 43.70 1.55 1.55 43.58 5.49 0.62 39.33 0.48 45.16 0.37 1.18 46.32 5.77 0.41 42.90 0.40 51.93 0.81 0.91 36.42 5.00 0.34 52.18 1.25 70.72 3.48 2.88 10.85 6.74 1.06 63.65 2.16 51.56 0.18 0.99 32.03 8.39 1.84 52.92 1.09 69.06 4.29 3.19 12.41 6.53 0.93 62.15 5.39 0.40 5.12 1.01 0.95 87.13 4.31 0.34 4.61 36.66 2.70 34.51 6.87 6.45 12.81 22.00 2.29 31.06 2.92 0.61 1.67 3.33 0.71 90.28 2.31 0.52 1.53 1.91 0.19 5.52 1.15 0.56 90.67 1.53 0.16 4.97 2.27 0.73 9.14 0.81 1.05 86.00 1.82 0.62 8.23 3.09 0.70 2.26 3.27 0.77 89.45 2.47 0.59 2.03 3.33 0.29 4.46 0.85 0.99 89.97 2.66 0.25 4.01 4.88 0.20 3.57 0.86 0.82 89.70 3.90 0.17 3.21 Continued. Chemical composition in % of raw substance Name of products Nitrogenous substances (proteins, etc.) Fats Carbohydrates Fiber Digestible quantities in % of raw substance Percentage of waste Nitrogenous substances (proteins, etc.) Carbohydrates Fats Water Net caloric value per 1 kg of market weight Sunflower oil cake 31.88 9.28 19.21 21.10 63.16 13.22 13.80 48.17 10.69 27.62 44.49 15.66 6.00 66.00 24.20 8.88 67.00 12.44 16.57 64.02 8.12 18.23 32.58 21.06 22.77 34.28 22.86 13.6 31.32 18.03 26.28 44.31 16.44 32.81 26.86 1.99 19.55 33.23 29.42 0.27 0.02 2.07 79.89 10.42 58.60 80.41 6.0 83.16 99.49 99.76 6.27 22.20 63.39 29.26 6.08 3.65 2.30 2.45 1.36 2.37 2.49 2.20 2.60 4.06 1.81 3.22 2.16 14.97 4.21 6.78 25.35 2.81 26.89 3.51 1.67 3.05 3.16 4.12 5.71 0.16 0.24 11.67 0.99 0.23 0.57 0.04 0.06 2.26 6.33 6.27 23.53 7.48 9.00 6.81 5.44 8.92 8.96 8.58 6.70 8.10 6.23 95.51 18.96 19.31 18.47 88.52 16.27 0.13 0.05 1.59 22.32 14.98 9.66 19.26 4.20 6.22 11.60 12.76 15.94 9.57 18.40 22.97 13.68 0.19 0.99 7.29 7.89 46.19 40.91 37.82 47.60 56.96 54.42 27.69 29.22 26.62 37.66 22.83 28.24 0.02 0.46 18.87 17.29 11.90 9.62 14.08 21.78 11.20 7.31 18.95 20.51 16.23 14.80 1.79 26.48 1.86 76.89 56.67 76.39 6.40 79.00 91.51 94.92 57.05 10 10 10 10 10 2 360 5 305 4 600 4 885 5 490 6 010 3 835 3 490 3 795 3 110 4 375 2 825 4 275 3 151 2 589 3 130 21 3 210 3 875 3 890 4 275 Due to the limited scope of questions that can be resolved by such an investigation, a significant drawback is its subjectivity and the frequent discrepancy in the evaluation of the same product by different individuals; the latter is often inevitable, as such an evaluation is based on personal sensations and the individual characteristics of the inspecting persons. However, such control also has its advantages—rapid and mass examination, during which, nevertheless, gross cases of violation of requirements are discovered.

In cases where the inadequacy of an on-site examination is obvious, the product is sent to a laboratory, where, in addition to so-called organoleptic examinations, versatile laboratory methods are also applied, by the totality of which more objective and correct results can be given. An exceptionally important prerequisite for the error-free use of laboratory examination results is, first of all, the correct selection of a sample from the examined product (or batch of product) sent to the laboratory; the sample is selected in such a way that it represents as fully as possible the qualities, properties, and composition of the entire examined batch. To compile such an average sample, regardless of whether there are liquid, solid, or bulk products, it is necessary to collect it from various places in the batch or, if the packaging and mass of the product allow, to thoroughly mix it beforehand, as, for example, when taking samples of milk, sour cream, cream, etc. In case the individual parts of the examined batch differ in their quality, samples are taken from each of them separately so that they can subsequently be dealt with in accordance with laboratory data. Furthermore, appropriate packaging and rapid shipment of the sample to the laboratory are necessary, where the sample must be delivered in an unchanged state. The packaging (vessel) must be absolutely clean, airtight if possible, and light-proof, durable, and chemically non-reactive with the contents. A sample for bacteriological examinations should be sent in a sterile vessel. All these conditions especially apply to cases where the sample, for various reasons, cannot be delivered to the laboratory immediately; jars or bottles of dark glass with ground-glass stoppers can satisfy these requirements; in the absence of such, simple glassware is used, and sometimes even parchment paper. Rapid delivery of samples to the laboratory is necessary to avoid the onset or intensification of decomposition processes in them; naturally, this applies especially to perishable products, for which shipment over a long distance is incomparably more favorable in the cold season. If a product is examined in its original packaging (e.g., canned goods in tins, patented nutritional preparations, etc.), then an entire unopened sample is sent to the laboratory. The sent sample must be labeled, which can be done by sticking a label on the vessel; the place and time of sample collection, the name and quantity of the product from which the sample was taken, and the signature of the person who performed the collection are noted on it. The sample must be accompanied by a cover letter, where, in addition to the necessary informational details, the purpose of the examination must be precisely indicated; the absence of an indication of the specific purpose of the examination, if possible, puts the laboratory in a difficult position in terms of choosing methods and correctly clarifying the issue that caused doubts for the sanitary physician or other person who sent the sample. In the case of observed poisonings with the given product, a brief description of the clinical picture of the poisoning is necessary, as this can give the laboratory an indication of in which direction to look for the harmful agent.

Depending on the circumstances, certain formalities are observed—keeping a duplicate of the sample on-site, applying a wax seal (of the sanitary physician, etc.), etc. Upon delivery to the laboratory, samples of perishable products are kept in a cold place (in an icebox) until the end of the examination.

Laboratory examination of Food Products is generally distinguished by significant complexity, which is explained by the complexity of the composition of Food Products, their relatively rapid variability, the numerousness of analytical methods, and also the great variety of the goals and tasks of the examination. The program for their detailed sanitary examination consists of the following parts: organoleptic examination, determination of physical properties (specific gravity, refraction, deviation of a polarized ray, spectroscopy of coloring substances, temperature, weight, volume, etc.); chemical analysis (reaction, degree of acidity and alkalinity of the product and its ash residue; water, dry residue, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and fiber; poisonous metals and organic compounds; admixtures of preserving, coloring, and flavoring substances, etc.); bacteriological examination (degree of microbial contamination; discovery of pathogenic and toxigenic microbes, etc.); biochemical examination (enzymes characteristic of the products and of various groups of microorganisms); biological examination (experimental feeding of laboratory animals with the examined products; precipitation tests to determine the nature and origin of protein, etc.) and a conclusion, in which the laboratory's finding regarding the examination of the sent object is indicated. The presented program represents only a general scheme for the examination of various Food Products and in practice is not applied in full to a single object; the laboratory usually limits itself only to those methods that can resolve the posed questions; the latter can be grouped under the following headings: determination of the chemical composition of Food Products and their nutritional value; determination of naturalness and adulteration; determination of freshness and spoilage; determination of harmfulness; determination of individual components and admixtures of food products characterizing it in relation to compliance with special requirements of the standard (grade of product, etc.). For details on laboratory examinations, spoilage, adulteration, storage, etc., see the individual products.

F. Budagyan.