Field Sanitation

FIELD SANITATION, an applied branch of military hygiene, encompassing a system of preventive measures for the improvement and sanitation of conditions for troops in the field, with the aim of protecting the health of the soldier and increasing his combat effectiveness. Field sanitation historically developed in parallel with military hygiene, and, as is usually the case, practice (sanitation) often far outstripped theory (hygiene). The main issues with which field sanitation deals are the conditions of accommodation for military units both during combat operations and during rest—in so-called defensive and non-defensive structures and buildings. The main objects of field sanitation are the accommodation of troops, the arrangement of water supply, and sanitation in field conditions. In combat conditions, the primary requirements and considerations are of a tactical nature, determining the character of defensive structures, their location, etc. This circumstance, as well as the necessity for thorough camouflage of all structures, complicates the application of standard hygienic norms in these conditions, forcing a reduction of hygienic requirements to the minimum permissible limits. Regarding non-defensive buildings, serving mainly for the rest of military units, it is possible to impose stricter requirements for their arrangement and equipment, with the establishment of reduced, but still firm, hygienic norms (see Dugout, Barracks, Tent). When using populated areas for rest and temporary quartering, it is also necessary to observe a number of sanitary requirements. While allowing for a reduction of living space to minimum limits during short-term placement of troops in populated areas (still not less than 2 m² of floor area per person), the main attention in this method of accommodation should be paid to the degree of sanitary condition of the living quarters themselves and, as a mandatory requirement, to the absence of infectious diseases among those living in these premises. When bivouacking for rest, the main attention when choosing a location is paid to the sanitary condition of the area and the availability of good-quality water in sufficient quantity for drinking and household needs (see Bivouac).

Defensive structures: trenches, shelters—depending on the nature of military operations (maneuver warfare, positional warfare) and the type of combat (defense in pre-fortified positions, offensive, etc.)—are constructed with varying strength and equipment, starting from simple individual trenches (cells) for firing while lying down and ending with concrete, well-equipped shelters in a sanitary sense. The most widespread use during combat operations is found in the simplest, camouflaged from the enemy, earth structures—trenches (Fig. 1), which ensure the convenience of firing and cover from enemy fire. For better preservation of the trench, the steepness of the ditch is usually reinforced with revetment—poles, wattle, brushwood, boards, etc. To protect trenches from dampness and mud, measures are taken to drain water into a nearby lowland or into specially

Figure 1. View of a section of a simple trench with riflemen: B—parapet; R—firing step in the ditch; T—rear traverse.

constructed absorption wells. In more advanced trenches, for better protection of the soldier from rifle fire, shrapnel bullets, and small fragments, loopholes, visors, and canopies or special niches and under-parapet dugouts are constructed (Fig. 2). For the rest of the soldiers and simultaneously for their protection from the effects of artillery fire, special shelters of varying strength are constructed, which, as a rule

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Figure 1. Dugout under the parapet (in the Polish army). ...are always equipped in a chemical-defense sense (see Gas Shelters). Of great importance in field sanitation in combat conditions is the provision of good-quality water to active troops. In this regard, previously compiled water supply maps of various regions, indicating water sources, their quality, and yield, are of great value. The practical resolution of field water supply issues [Enemy fire + 0.40 + 0.40]

Installation of a shaft well in trenches.

depends primarily on the nature of combat operations. Depending on the degree of maneuverability, the water supply of active troops is carried out in different ways, starting from the transport of water (in barrels, tankers) and ending with the construction of a water pipeline. The latter method, for example, had very wide distribution in the imperialist war, when a water supply network with water-dispensing points was set up in the trenches themselves. When installing shaft or Norton wells in trenches (Figs. 3 and 4), the latter are made in sheltered places far from latrine ditches and contaminated areas. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the direction of groundwater, especially if the dirty water from the trenches is removed into absorption wells. If there are springs near the trenches, the latter, after primitive catchment, can also serve as a source of water supply. In many cases, it is necessary to provide for the purification (disinfection) of water. The question of water supply in shelters is solved in approximately the same way as in trenches, only the water consumption here will be significantly higher, since in addition to drinking needs, water is needed for washing (showers). If there is no water on site or it is impossible to use it, water is delivered to the place of consumption by transport in barrels, tankers, or, on forward positions, by special water carriers. For storing water reserves (in shelters, trenches), various types of fabric impregnated (e.g., treated with aluminum salts and ozokerite) water reservoirs can be used with great convenience. On the march, water supply is most often carried out by using local water sources with preliminary sanitary examination of them and in many cases with the production of water disinfection (see Water Supply—water supply in military field conditions).

Figure 4. Installation of a Norton well in trenches.

In many cases, it is necessary to provide for the purification (disinfection) of water. The question of water supply in shelters is solved in approximately the same way as in trenches, only the water consumption here will be significantly higher, since in addition to drinking needs, water is needed for washing (showers). If there is no water on site or it is impossible to use it, water is de-

[Enemy fire] livered to the place of consumption by transport in barrels, tankers, or, on forward positions, by special water carriers. For storing water reserves (in shelters, trenches), various types of fabric impregnated (e.g., treated with aluminum salts and ozokerite) water reservoirs can be used with great convenience. On the march, water supply is most often carried out by using local water sources with preliminary sanitary examination of them and in many cases with the production of water disinfection (see Water Supply—water supply in military field conditions).

Figure 5. Latrine in trenches.

Figure 6. Portable latrines of the German type.

No less important and no less complex issues of field sanitation are the removal of excrement and waste. A typical solution here is the construction of latrines near trenches or shelters, connected to them by communication trenches. The location and construction of latrines must guarantee against the contamination of water sources. Latrines must be constructed in impermeable soil; otherwise

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the bottom and walls are lined with kneaded fat clay. Upon filling the cesspool, the latter is buried. To combat stench and flies, the excrement is covered with earth and poured over with a 10% solution of chlorinated lime or 20% milk of lime. The construction of a latrine in trenches is shown in Fig. 5. For protection from shrapnel bullets and fragments, the latrine is equipped with a canopy. Very expedient from a sanitary point of view were the portable latrines used by the Germans in the World War (Fig. 6). By covering the cesspools tightly (densely), they protected well against stench and flies. For collecting urine, a specially designed urinal for trenches can be recommended (Fig. 7), consisting of a pit of 1 m³, filled with crushed stone, pebbles, and sand. Urine entering the urinal through urine collectors (metal or ceramic funnels) located at the corners is quickly subjected to mineralization. For drainage

7. Construction of a trench urinal.

For used water in shelters (after showers), absorption wells (vertical drainage) are usually arranged. Garbage and food waste are removed from trenches into special pits, where they should be regularly covered with a layer of earth. In more stationary conditions, particularly in positional warfare, it is advisable to use garbage incineration. Figure 8 gives a general idea of the types of trenches and, in particular, the relative location of various devices in them: shelters, wells, latrines, communication trenches, etc. The improvement of battlefields is of great importance in field sanitation: the timely and proper burial of killed soldiers and the removal of animal carcasses. The arrangement of common (mass) graves* should be carried out with observance of the basic requirements regarding air, water, and soil purity, taking into account the possibility of rapid decomposition and mineralization. To meet these requirements, the soil (dry, loose, preferably sandy), a low groundwater level, and avoiding the accumulation of a large number of bodies in one grave are important. In one common grave, it is recommended to bury no more than 20 people, arranging the grave itself as a trench 2 m wide and up to 20 m long; the bodies should be laid in a single row, separating them from each other as much as possible with a layer of earth and tree branches. The depth of the grave should be at least 1.5-2 m, the bottom of the grave should be at least 0.5 m above the groundwater level. Bodies of those who died from infectious diseases should, if possible, be burned; if burial is necessary, the bodies are covered with chlorinated or quicklime for disinfection. The cleanup of battlefields should be carried out by specially appointed and trained teams under the supervision of military sanitary authorities. Similar to the rules mentioned above, cemeteries for animal carcasses are arranged, with a corresponding increase in the area allocated per corpse.